taxonID	type	description	language	source
0385994AFFBAFFE49BFDFF09FD11B91B.taxon	discussion	The subfamily was introduced in Cock & Congdon (2012). Evans (1937) grouped the African species into several more or less well defined genera groups, but recognised that the classification of Hesperiinae is not satisfactory. Warren et al. (2009) made significant progress towards a new classification of the Hesperiidae, using morphological and molecular data, but made relatively little progress with the African Hesperiinae. Heteropterinae was confirmed as a separate subfamily, and the tribes Aeromachini and Baorini absorbed a few species (see Cock & Congdon 2012), but the remainder, representing the great majority, were left incertae sedis — of uncertain placement. Evans (1937) divided the African Hesperiinae into five genera groups: the Ampittia group, the Ceratrichia group, the Acleros group, the Ploetzia group, and the Gegenes group. The first and last of these were also recognised in the Euro-Asia-Australian fauna (Evans 1949), although the first was referred to as the Astictopterus group. Part of the Ampittia group is included in Aeromachini and part of the Gegenes group is included in Baorini (Warren et al. 2009; Cock & Congdon 2012). We have found that all Evans’ African genera groups apart from the Ploetzia group include species whose caterpillars feed on dicotyledons. The arrangement of Hesperiinae incertae sedis used in this study is to group the genera by their food plants. This is not to suggest that this represents a realistic classification, but where there are similarities that would not be anticipated based on the existing genera groups, they should be evident. In this part, we cover the diverse species whose caterpillars feed on dicotyledons (a term which doesn’t fit current phylogenetic understanding, but is sufficiently precise for our purpose). We follow the generic sequence in Evans (1937) and indicate the genera group of origin of each of the genera treated here.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFBAFFE59BFDFABDFACAB858.taxon	discussion	This is a genus of 20 or more species (Larsen 2010) restricted to Africa. These are secretive butterflies, seldom seen. They tend to be found in localised colonies, which may be more easily located as caterpillars. The known food plants of Gorgya spp. are all dicotyledons; most records are from species of Connaraceae, but there are also records from Dichapetalaceae and unconfirmed records from Putranjivaceae and Meliaceae.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFBAFFE59BFDFABDFACAB858.taxon	description	We present information on four species that we have reared. In addition to these, at least four other species have been reared. Sevastopulo (unpublished) reared G. bina Evans from Zika Forest, Entebbe, Uganda from an unidentified food plant which in his photographs can be seen to have quite large (c. 60 mm long) shiny leaves. The folded leaf shelter resembles that of the mature caterpillar of G. bibulus Riley (Figure 6). The form of the caterpillar is similar to other Gorgyra spp. treated here: head black; body grey-green, inter-segmental folds more yellow; legs brown; anal flap large, rounded, tinged with olive. The pupa is formed in a slight cocoon in a folded leaf, lined with white waxy powder: reddish brown, abdomen tinged olive; covered with white waxy powder, which adheres to the setae of head and thorax; short, deeply bifurcate frontal projection. Sevastopulo (1974, 1975, unpublished) reared G. diva Evans from Rourea orientalis (= Byrsocarpus orientalis) (Connaraceae), in the Shimba Hills. Armed with this information, MJWC examined herbarium specimens in the National Herbarium, Kenya, and so tracked down the food plant (Figure 1), but the caterpillars that he reared proved to be G. johnstoni (Butler) (below). Sevastopulo’s caterpillar had the head reddish mahogany; body yellowish green, minutely speckled white, intersegmental areas yellowish; anal flap rounded, brownish; all legs green. Pupa in a silk lined cell in a folded leaf lined with white waxy powder; pale greenish amber, the head and thorax tinged chestnut; head with two projecting tubercles between the eyes; thickly coated with white waxy powder which adheres to the setae of the thorax and head. Sevastopulo’s food plant record has been repeated by subsequent authors: Kielland (1990), Larsen (1991), Ackery et al. (1995), and Heath et al. (2002). Larsen (1991) states that the caterpillars are frequently parasitized (based on MJWC’s observations); at that time, MJWC thought he had reared G. diva, but it was G. johnstoni, so these observations should be associated with the latter species (below). Vuattoux (1999) reared G. afikpo Druce from three different food plants in Côte d’Ivoire: Connarus thonningii (Connaraceae), Dichapetalum madagascariense (= D. guineense) (Dichapetalaceae), and an unidentified plant. Vuattoux (1999) also reared G. sara Evans from Cnestis ferruginea (Connaraceae) and an unidentified plant. MJWC found a Gorgyra sp. caterpillar (94 / 105) on C. ferruginea (Figure 2.1) at Ibadan, Nigeria, which may have been G. sara, but it died as a crippled pupa when the final instar head capsule did not split and detach properly. The leaf shelters (Figure 2.2) and caterpillar (Figure 3) were similar to those of the G. bibulus treated below.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFB8FFE99BFDFB6EFB61BDAA.taxon	description	Food plants Van Someren (1974) recorded the food plant as Drypetes gerrardii in East Africa; at that time Drypetes was placed in Euphorbiaceae, but it is now placed in Putranjivaceae. This record is repeated by subsequent authors (Heath et al. 2002), or simplified to Drypetes (Sevastopulo 1975, Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995). In the 1990 s, ABRI collectors discovered that Rourea thomsonii (Connaraceae) is a food plant in Gatamayu Forest, Kenya (Figure 5), and the early stages that MJWC collected there with an ABRI collector on 4 Jul 1998 (98 / 201) are described and illustrated below. Probably, this ABRI food plant record is the origin of the record of R. thomsonii in Heath et al. (2002). The record from Drypetes gerrardii has not been repeated since Van Someren (1974), and the possibility of a misidentification or error cannot be discounted. Leaf shelters The stage 1 and stage 2 shelters (Figures 5 and 6.1) are two-cut shelters from edge of the leaf; the shelter lids are broad, the two cuts being at right angles to the leaf edge, so that the bridge is as wide as the shelter, and the resultant flap is folded under. One stage 2 shelter measured 20 x 7 mm with a 13 mm penultimate instar (98 / 201 D); the shelter lid was raised from the leaf by pulling the two narrow ends together with silk. Another stage 2 shelter contained a 14 mm penultimate instar caterpillar ready to moult (98 / 201 E; Figure 6.1); one end of the shelter was closed but not sealed. Two final instar caterpillars were field collected. The smaller 19 mm caterpillar (97 / 201 C) was in a shelter made on a 100 mm leaf using the distal half, a large flap having been folded under; most of the feeding was basal to the shelter and the midrib was completely bare for 15 mm immediately basal to the shelter (Figure 6.2). The shelter of the larger, 20 mm caterpillar (98 / 201 B) was clearly an earlier version of the pupal shelter described below. On a leaf of 65 mm, the basal 27 mm had been folded over upwards, and most of the leaf distal to this had been eaten (or cut off). The caterpillar pupated on 12 July, eight days after collection, so this shelter seems to have been constructed during the final instar for pupation. A pupal shelter found in the field (Figure 6.3, 98 / 201 A) was formed in a leaf originally 45 mm long, which had become dead and brown because of the caterpillar’s feeding. The distal half of the leaf was eaten (or cut off) except for the midrib and a few scraps; the basal half was folded over upwards along one side of the midrib until flat, forming a shelter 22 mm long; the portion along the midrib formed a tube; strands of tough brown silk along the edge of this tube held the shelter together; the basal end of the tube was sealed shut, and the distal end had a round exit hole lined with silk; the inside of the tube was lined with silk and covered with white waxy powder which was also on the pupa; an adjacent leaf was also heavily eaten or cut back, dead and brown, and the remaining 25 x 15 mm portion dangled alongside the pupal shelter, but this may have been fortuitous rather than normal. Ovum Oviposition is concentrated on the youngest red-green flush leaves. At this stage the leaves are still folded in half along the midrib, and the ova are inserted between the two halves of the leaf, some at the margin, but others well inside. The ovum is stuck to one half of the leaf by its base, and to the other at the micropyle. Several ova can be found close together. Hence, for example, one clump of about ten flush leaves on a regenerating cut branch had nine caterpillars in stage 1 shelters (Figure 5). The ovum (Figure 7) is white, about 0.77 mm (n = 4) in diameter, 0.41 mm high (n = 2), it is flattened dorsally and widest a little above the base. It is finely sculptured with horizontal rows of adjacent polygonal pits extending almost to the micropyle, about 50 in total around the circumference where the ovum is widest. About half the shell of the ovum is eaten by the newly hatched caterpillar. Caterpillar The first instars are green with a black head, 1.04 x 0.96 mm wide x high (n = 6) in instar n- 2. In the penultimate instar (98 / 201 D, Figure 8) the head is blackish, rugose, oval, slightly wider basally, slightly indented at vertex, 1.63 x 1.46 mm wide x high (n = 3); T 1 concolorous; body green with diffuse pale subdorsal lines; faint brown semicircular mark on anal plate; spiracles pale, inconspicuous; legs concolorous. The newly moulted penultimate instar measured 8 mm (98 / 201 J), and a premoult caterpillar (98 / 201 E) measured 14 mm. The final instar caterpillar is similar to earlier instars. Based on individual 98 / 201 B (Figure 9): 20 mm; head oval with slight indentation at vertex, 2.2 x 2.71 mm wide x high (n = 1), brown, posterior margin black, rugose; T 1 concolorous; body yellow-green, more yellow in transverse folds at posterior of each segment, darker green dorsal line; T 1 – T 2 more slender than following segments; anal plate with weak quadrate reddish mark; spiracles pale, inconspicuous; legs concolorous. Pupa The pupa (Figure 10) is supported by the cremaster and a weak, vestigial silk girdle; 18 mm long; matt, dark brownblack; wing cases brown; a bifurcate frontal projection; proboscis extends 1.4 mm beyond wing cases (98 / 201 D); pupa covered with very short, pale setae, which are longer on the anterior and posterior parts of the eye. A male (Figure 4, 98 / 201 B) completed pupation in 16 days. Natural enemies A 7 mm n- 2 instar caterpillar in a stage 2 shelter (98 / 201 H) was dead, together with four euplectine larvae, which had become black naked pupae by 11 July and adults emerged 16 July. The field collected pupa (98 / 201 A) was parasitized by a large (8.6 mm) ichneumonid (predominantly yellow, abdomen brown; head, forecoxa, and central dorsal part of thorax black; hind tarsi dark) which emerged on 22 Jul, 18 days after collection.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFB5FFED9BFDFB5DFA8BBDD4.taxon	description	Adult behaviour Although MJWC twice found caterpillars, he has not seen adults in the wild, yet it is relatively frequent in old collections (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2012). The adults (Figure 11) seem to prefer partially shaded food plants for oviposition, along forest or scrub tracks. Food plants Sevastopulo (1974, 1975, unpublished) found the food plant of G. diva to be Rourea orientalis (= Byrsocarpus orientalis) (Connaraceae), in the Shimba Hills. MJWC examined the food plant (Figure 1) in the Shimba Hills and collected caterpillars of what he assumed at the time to be G. diva, but actually proved to be G. johnstoni. Leaf shelters The first shelter is a small flap (5 – 7 x 3 – 5 mm) cut from the edge of the leaf lamina and folded upwards. The second shelter is formed from the basal half of a leaf, by cutting a notch from each margin to the mid rib at the centre of the leaf, and a small notch at the base of the leaf adjacent to, and parallel to the mid rib (see Figure 12); then folding the flap from each side upwards to meet over the mid rib, making a shelter 10 – 16 mm long and 7 – 8 mm wide. Some caterpillars make a second shelter similar to the first, but larger (e. g. 10 x 5 mm). The third shelter is made by drawing together several leaves. Pupation may be in the third shelter, or in a single leaf shelter formed by folding it in half along the mid rib. Ovum A hatched ovum, probably of this species, was noted on a leaf undersurface, at the margin; it was similar to that of G. bibulus but smaller; white, rugose, finely reticulate, 0.67 x 0.35 mm diameter x height. Caterpillar The caterpillar is green, with yellow speckles and a darker dorsal line (Figures 12 and 13). Instar n- 2 the black head measured 0.96 x 0.98 mm wide x high (n = 2). In the penultimate instar, the rounded oval head is dark brown with scattered light setae, 1.47 x 1.65 mm wide x high (n = 2); T 1 concolorous; anal plate translucent brown (Figure 12). In the final instar the head is reddish brown, with short, pale, scattered setae, stalked with a round plate on top, 2.35 x 2.35 mm (Figure 13); the anal plate is brown and the dorsal plate on T 1 is not evident. A specimen with a dark brown head (Figure 14) was probably this species, but was parasitised. Pupa The pupa (Figure 15; 89 / 100 B) is supported by a silk girdle; it is lightly dusted with white waxy powder, apart from the dorsal surface of the head which has a dense layer on it. The inside of the pupal shelter is also covered with the powder. 14 mm; four days after formation (and three days after Figure 15 was taken) the abdomen, appendages and wing cases were translucent yellowish; thorax and head light brown; eyes protuberant; two small blunt frontal projections at an angle of about 45 °; thorax, anterior and posterior parts of eye, apex of frontal projections with erect pale setae; spiracle T 1 brown, slightly protuberant and fairly conspicuous. Pupation took 13 days. Natural enemies The medium grown caterpillars are commonly attacked by a gregarious eulophid, which forms 2 – 4 naked black pupae in the leaf shelter. The final instar is also parasitised by an Apanteles (s. l.) sp. (Braconidae), a gregarious species whose larvae spin a tight mass of flocullence in the leaf shelter within which they pupate for 16 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFB0FFEF9BFDF92CFBA8BD23.taxon	description	Food plants MJWC found this species on Agelaea pentagyna (or near) (Connaraceae) in Côte d’Ivoire (88 / 210). A final instar caterpillar and an emerged pupa were collected beside an open track in a patch of forest at Adiopodoumé, near the lagoon. The food plant had large, tough trifoliate leaves. Leaf shelters One leaf margin was extensively eaten 2 / 3 of the distance to the midrib distal and basal to the shelter, which was about ¼ of the distance from the base to the apex of the leaf; the shelter lid was turned over upwards onto the leaf, measured 20 x 15 mm, and the edges had started to turn brown. Caterpillar The final instar caterpillar (Figure 16) measured 18 mm when collected; head rounded, widest in bottom half, 2.35 x 2.94 mm wide x high; dull light brown, covered with very short, fine, white setae; body yellowish green, yellower at anterior and posterior ends; anal plate brownish. Pupa 13 mm; abdomen pale, turning dark before eclosion (Figure 17); thorax and head brown; apex of abdomen curved down to cremaster; spatulate bifurcate frontal projection. The pupa eclosed after 18 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFAEFFF19BFDF977FEF8B939.taxon	description	Food plants Sevastopulo (unpublished) reared this species from Kwale (Shimba Hills, Kenya) but unfortunately did not record the food plant which presumably he was unable to identify. His photographs suggest a plant with small rounded leaves of about 30 mm. TCEC found this species (Figures 18 and 19) on what has been provisionally identified from a small sapling of sterile material of a Meliaceae (Sapindales), initially identified as Entandrophragma sp., but now thought to be a Khaya sp., at Sanje, at the eastern end of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. As is often the case with Hesperiidae, and noted above for G. bibulus, the caterpillars feed on soft new growth, ignoring mature foliage. Leaf shelters A folded leaf. Caterpillar “ Head dark purplish red. Body green, traces of a darker green dorsal line. Anal flap flattened and rounded. 1 st somite [T 1] narrow, forming a neck. ” (Sevastopulo unpublished). Pupa “ Pupa formed in the larval cell, with a curtain of whitish silk blocking the front and lightly coated with a white waxy powder. Pale green, the head, thorax and wing-cases more yellow. Head with a central, bifid, forwardpointing, brownish process. Pro-thoracic spiracle large and reddish in colour. ” (Sevastopulo unpublished). Pupation took 10 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFAFFFF19BFDF964FC81BDDD.taxon	discussion	We have not reared any members of this genus, but Vuattoux (1999) reared Teniorhinus watsoni watsoni Holland once from Cynometra megalophylla (Fabaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire, and Pringle et al. (1994) report that R. Paré reared T. harona (Westwood) from Brachystegia boehmii (Fabaceae).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFACFFF29BFDFF09FCB3BB7F.taxon	discussion	Of the two species of this Afrotropical genus, one from east and one from west of the Rift Valley, TCEC has reared the eastern species, A. biseriata (Mabille), from Zambia (Figures 20 and 21). We anticipate that the biology of the western species, A. annulifer (Holland), will prove to be similar.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFACFFF39BFDF94FFECCBEE2.taxon	discussion	This species is widely distributed in the Miombo woodland belt from Angola, through Zimbabwe, Zambia and southern DRC to Malawi, Mozambique and East Africa. In Tanzania it can expected wherever there is extensive Brachystegia woodland. Sevastopulo (1974) reports it common in Makardara and Marere Forests of the Shimba Hills, Kenya, throughout the year, and Larsen (1991) considers this one of the commonest of coastal skippers (e. g. very long museum series from Rabai), and found inland as far as Kibwezi and the Ukambani Hills. In spite of this, MJWC encountered it just once in more than four years.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFACFFF39BFDF94FFECCBEE2.taxon	description	Food plants The food plant in Kenya was identified as Brachystegia sp. (Fabaceae) (Sevastopulo 1974, 1975, unpublished). The only Brachystegia sp. in Kenya is B. spiciformis (Beentje 1994), which is restricted to the coast. Sevastopulo (1974) points out that there must be other food plants as A. biseriatus occurs in the Makardara Forest in the absence of Brachystegia, and the same applies to the inland populations of A. biseriata from Kibwezi and the Ukambani Hills. Independently, Pringle et al. (1994) gave the food plant as B. spiciformis citing R. Paré, and TCEC has reared it from the same food plant in Tanzania (Mufindi) and Zambia (Mutinondo). Subsequent authors are assumed to be repeating these published records: Kielland (1990), Larsen (1991), Ackery et al. (1995), Heath et al. (2002), Woodhall (2005). Leaf shelters Two leaflets are spun together to protect the older caterpillars. The final instar larva binds two leaves together, one below the other, the larva living and pupating in the space between. It is thus very difficult to find in the wild. Caterpillar “ Head bronzy black, slightly indented above. Body green, a dark dorsal line due to the contents of the gut, otherwise unmarked. Anal flap flattened, the outline rounded. The first somite narrow, forming a neck. ” (Sevastopulo unpublished). L 5 head dark brown, no markings (ABRI specimens). Pupa “ Pupa in a cell formed of two spun-together leaflets. Yellowish, the thorax and wing cases tinged with green. Prothoracic spiracle large, crescent shaped, reddish brown. Proboscis sheath reaching the middle of the 6 th abdominal somite ventrad. Cremaster triangular and fringed with a series of long, hooked, purplish spines, which are embedded in a slight silken pad. The pupa is not supported by any girdle. ” Pupation took 11 days. (Sevastopulo unpublished). There are three emerged pupae preserved in ABRI. They are 15, 15 and 16 mm long; brown; front flattened, and a small bump anterior to each eye; spiracle T 1 brown, slightly raised; proboscis projects 1 segment beyond wing cases.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFADFFF39BFDF9A8FB80BD45.taxon	discussion	Of the three described species of this Afrotropical genus (Ackery et al. 1995), we have reared only P. morantii morantii (Trimen) the eastern subspecies of the widespread P. morantii. Vuattoux (1999) reared the western subspecies, P. moranti axis Evans once from Combretum racemosum (Combretaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire. The two subspecies will need to be separated as valid species (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2012).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFADFFF89BFDF8C9FCC1BB5D.taxon	discussion	Nominate subspecies morantii was described from South Africa (Natal) and recorded from there north along the western mountains of Tanzania, to Uganda, Angola and Zaire. There is an apparently disjunct population in southeastern Kenya, where subspecies morantii is commonest at the coast and is recorded inland to the Teita Hills, Mt Sagalla (Larsen 1991) and the Chyulu Hills, where van Someren (1939) recorded a few at 915 – 1370 m (3,000 – 4,500 ft.). MJWC has also found it further inland at Kibwezi Forest and Kiboko. Both Clark (in Dickson & Kroon 1978) and Sevastopulo (unpublished) have documented the life history of this species; the former, based on material from Durban, South Africa, found that sometimes there are six caterpillar instars. Henning et al. (1997) repeat Clark’s observations and include photographs by R. Paré of caterpillars and pupa.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFADFFF89BFDF8C9FCC1BB5D.taxon	description	Adult behaviour The single adult MJWC encountered at Kibwezi Forest was sunbathing (cf. Figure 22.1). Caterpillars and their distinctive final shelters are much more easily and commonly found than adults. Food plants The first food plant recorded is Combretum molle (= C. gueinzii) (Combretaceae) in South Africa (Platt 1921), and this is most likely the source of Pinhey’s (1949) and Gifford’s (1965) records of Combretum sp. Subsequent reports from South Africa expand the range of food plants: Dickson & Kroon (1978) record C. molle and Bridelia micrantha (Phyllanthaceae, formerly Euphorbiaceae); Pringle et al. (1994) add Syzygium cordatum (Myrtaceae). Henning et al. (1997) and Woodhall (2005) add Terminalia sp. and Quisqualis sp. to this list, but these are probably based on East African records. Thus, in his list of the food plants of East African Lepidoptera, Sevastopulo (1975) includes Combretum, Quisqualis and Terminalia. Sevastopulo (unpublished) recorded Quisqualis indica and Terminalia catappa as food plants at the Kenya coast, but attributes a record of Combretum sp. to Pinhey (i. e. Pinhey 1949), which as noted above, is probably derived from the earlier South African record. The food plants given by Kielland (1990), Larsen (1991, 2005) and Heath et al. (2002) repeat those of earlier workers. In Kenya, MJWC has repeated Sevastopulo’s observations on Quisqualis indica (Diani Beach, 89 / 99) and Terminalia catappa (Diani Beach, 89 / 103, 95 / 108), and also reared this species from Combretum pentagonum (Diani Beach, 90 / 107) and Syzygium guineense (Kiboko, 95 / 100). The four penultimate instar caterpillars collected on this last host plant were transferred to T. catappa when their original food plant was no longer available, and although they accepted this new food, only one reached the pupal stage (and it was parasitized). Ovum The ova are laid individually in the middle of the leaf upper surface. They measure 1.4 mm (n = 3) in diameter at the base by 0.8 mm (n = 2) high. An unhatched ovum associated with this species (Figure 23) had 15 strong ribs from the base to a broad, pale, mat area on top; the sides were straight rather than rounded (but see discussion below). Leaf shelters One form of the second shelter made on the large stiff mature leaf of Terminalia catappa is nearly globular, and is formed on a leaf main vein by rolling a flap up and over, leaving the veins and irregular flaps at the edge which are held in place with a scaffolding of silk strands; additional strands of silk anchor the structure to the leaf surface (Figure 24.2; 89 / 49 B). The caterpillar rests across the main vein with its head at the end of the flap. Another form of stage 2 shelter was found on Syzygium guineense, which has smaller, less stiff leaves (Figure 24.1; 95 / 100 A); one shelter was made on a flush leaf, and another three on mature leaves. It appears to have been formed as a two cut shelter, the lid folded over onto the leaf upper surface; the edges of the shelter and adjacent leaf have deep, irregular notches cut in them; the distal angles of the shelter have been eaten (or cut) to make the lid oval rather than a segment of a circle The final instar caterpillar rests in the pupal shelter which it prepares. The shelter is made from a section of leaf containing a major vein; on Quisqualis indica all except the basal 10 – 25 mm of leaf is used (Figure 25.1); on T. catappa an arc is cut out of the leaf apex (Figure 25.2). The whole shelter is about 40 mm long; the leaf mid rib is bared for about 5 mm at the base of the shelter, and strengthened with red silk (after partially biting it through in the case of T. catappa, so that it bent); the shelter hangs down by this bared section; the basal chamber in which the pupa is formed is about 20 mm long, 9 mm wide and 10 mm high, and in cross section is nearly square; a deep notch is cut from the leaf, distal to the basal chamber, and the distal flaps (c. 12 mm) are held together with silk. The shelters turn brown as the leaf portions desiccate, and the empty shelters may remain on the food plants long after the adult has emerged (Figure 25.2). Caterpillar The head capsule of the n- 2 instar caterpillar measured 1.2 x 1.5 mm (n = 1) wide x high; the head was widest nearest the base with the sides relatively straight; brown; covered with short, pale setae, stalked with a palmate top. The penultimate instar caterpillar found in the shelter shown in Figure 24.1 (95 / 100 A) measured 15 mm; head 1.8 x 2.1 mm (n = 4) wide x high; shape as previous instar; dark brown, covered with short pale setae, which have a very short stalk surmounted by an irregular, granular-surfaced, round plate; T 1 concolorous with head; body dull browngreen with dark dorsal line, and covered with pale inconspicuous speckles; T 2 – T 3 more yellow; A 1 – A 8 a pinkishbrown, ventrolateral ridge; spiracles pale, those of T 1 and A 8 quite conspicuous; legs brown; prolegs concolorous. The mature caterpillar is shown in Figure 27 (89 / 49 A). When collected, a similar caterpillar on Quisqualis indica (89 / 99 A) measured 21 mm; head 2.3 x 2.8 mm (n = 3); similar shape to previous instar; dark mat brown, with a dense covering of very light brown scales, of similar structure to those of previous instar; these scales are dark brown in a stripe down centre of face, and a broader one from each vertex down face, diverging slightly near mouth parts; T 1 mat brown with very narrow dark dorsal plate; body dull green with yellow speckles A 1 – A 8; dark green dorsal line from A 2 to A 8; legs T 1 brown, other legs concolorous; spiracles inconspicuous. The mature caterpillar (95 / 100 B) developed wax glands over the whole of the ventral surface A 3 – A 8, apart from the prolegs and ventral line. The photographs in Henning et al. (1997) show two forms of the final instar: a brown form which resembles the penultimate instar shown here (Figure 24.1), but with the same head as the final instar (Figure 27.2), and a green form, which resembles that shown here for the final instar (Figure 27). Their text does not discuss the two forms or state where they were found. Sevastopulo (unpublished) noted that at the beginning of the final instar the body colouring resembles that of the previous instar, but becomes increasingly green as the caterpillar grows; it could be that this is the case with the photographs in Henning et al. (1997). Pupa The pupa (Figure 28) is formed in the basal section of the pupal chamber which is lined with silk and covered with white waxy powder. It is 16 mm long; brown, rounded, but flattened ventrally; the proboscis sheath almost reaches the cremaster; thorax and head with pale, erect setae, those of head with entrapped white waxy powder; abdomen with pale, recumbent setae; spiracle T 1 oval, light brown, protruding. Pupation takes 11 – 14 days. Natural enemies An unidentified larval-pupal tachinid parasitoid was reared from a pupa formed by caterpillar collected in the penultimate instar on Syzygium guineense, 17 Aug 1995, Kiboko, Kenya (95 / 100 C). The mature fly larva emerged from the pupa and formed its puparium within the pupal shelter. The adult fly emerged 21 days after the host pupated. A pupa collected in an old shelter on T. catappa at Diani Beach, (22 Aug 1995, 95 / 108) had two round holes laterally in the abdomen suggesting that it had been parasitized, perhaps by a Brachymeria sp. as there was no indication of puparia or parasitoid cocoons in the shelter.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA7FFF99BFDFEB9FE96BB8F.taxon	discussion	There are at least seven species placed in this African genus, but only two are found in Kenya, where they are associated with forest habitats. The reported food plants include species of Anacardiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malpighiaceae.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA7FFFD9BFDFD8BFD10B8E8.taxon	discussion	Evans (1937) recognised six different forms of Acleros mackenii Trimen, 1868 (type locality Durban, South Africa) from throughout sub-Saharan Africa, some geographic and some seasonal. The dry season form from East Africa he referred to f. olaus Plötz, 1884 (type locality Loanga, [Burkina Faso]) which has upper surface markings in both sexes and the hind wing under surface with pale markings, and the wet season form as f. instabilis (type locality Zanzibar) with the male upper surface unmarked, and the hind wing under surface dark. Ackery et al. (1995) suggest that olaus may be a distinct West African species. Larsen (2005) summarises the unpublished views of L. A. Berger that there are three species involved, which Larsen treats as subspecies: olaus from West Africa, instabilis from central to East Africa and the nominate mackenii from southern Africa. Pending further study, we follow this treatment here. However, we are not convinced that dry season and wet season forms explains the variation seen in Kenya, and further careful collecting, rearing and study are needed to clarify the causes of variation.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA7FFFD9BFDFD8BFD10B8E8.taxon	description	It is widespread in forested situations more or less throughout Kenya, including the Chyulu Hills where it can be very common ‘ frequenting the undergrowth of Acanthaceae’ (Van Someren 1939) and Shimba Hills where it is uncommon (Sevastopulo 1974). Generally, this is one of the common forest species everywhere in Kenya. Adult behaviour The males (Figure 29.1) defend territories. Walking along the tracks of Ngong Forest, Nairobi, often every sunlit patch beside the track will have one or two males perched on vegetation at 1 – 2.5 m above the ground. These males will rise to attack other butterflies, and indulge in fast swirling combat with other males, before returning to one of a few select perch sites. In flight often only the white tip of the abdomen can be seen. MJWC has also noted that on hot days, both sexes (but perhaps the female more than the male) will perch on low vegetation (<0.3 m) or the ground in shady portions of the forest (Figure 29.2). Both sexes come readily to flowers such as Justicia flava. Gifford (1965) states that it is ‘ gregarious at night’. Food plants In Kenya, MJWC’s experience suggests the normal food plants are Fabaceae vines (Larsen 1991), particularly species of Vigna. In the Shimba Hills (by the bridge on the Marere Waterworks track), the food plant was a Vigna sp. with tripetiolate leaves, which sprawled over low vegetation on sandy soil (90 / 50); at Kisii it was a similar vine with yellow flowers. In Ngong Forest, in spite of repeated searches, MJWC found only one egg (Figure 30) and a shelter (similar to those described below), which were on V. schimperi (MJWC 101), a species with purple flowers. At Thika, MJWC found caterpillars on a similar, non-flowering vine (98 / 203). Murray (1959) also reported the food plant as “ a small leguminous climber ” in South Africa. In contrast to MJWC’s experience, Van Someren (1974) lists ‘ Rhus coriacius ’ (Anacardiacae) and ‘ Acridocarpus longifolius (?) ’ (Malphigiaceae), which are repeated by Sevastopulo (1975) as genera only. ‘ Rhus coriacius ’ is not a published name, but has been applied to R. coriaria, a southern European tree, whose dried fruits are used as a spice in the Middle East. There are six species of Rhus in Kenya (Beentje 1994), but no obvious equivalent. Van Someren included the annotation ‘ (?) ’ after Acridocarpus longifolius, so was uncertain of the record or species name. Acridocarpus longifolius is a West African species, and the nearest equivalent in Kenya would be A. zanzibaricus, which is restricted to the coast (Beentje 1994). These records are repeated by subsequent authors: Kielland (1990), Ackery et al. (1995); Henning et al. (1997 as R. coriarius and A. smeathmanii, the later a synonym of A. longifolius in Tropicos 2012), Larsen (2005), Woodhall (2005). Willis & Woodhall (2010) state that caterpillars ‘ feed on species of Searsia (formerly Rhus) ’, but this may simply reflect recent taxonomic changes in the southern Africa flora, rather than local knowledge of the food plants. Clark (in Dickson & Kroon 1978) illustrates the life history in detail, but the text of Dickson & Kroon (1978) does not mention the food plants; the illustrations include part of a food plant leaf, but this is not distinctive enough to suggest an identity. Larsen (1991) includes Rhus and Acridocarpus with an element of doubt. Heath et al. (2002) list the food plants as Combretum molle, Terminalia, Quisqualis, Bridelia micrantha, Acridocarpus longifolius, but do not include Rhus; the first four do not seem to have been mentioned elsewhere, and given the overlap with the food plants of Parosmodes morantii (above), could represent a transcription error. Given that neither Rhus nor Acridocarpus appear to have been directly confirmed by subsequent workers, it could be that Van Someren’s (1974) records are in error. However, given the possibility that there are more than one species grouped together under the name A. mackenii, it is possible that they use different food plants. Ovum The ovum MJWC located in Ngong Forest is (by elimination, comparison to that of Andronymus caesar (Figure 42), and comparison with Clark’s (in Dickson & Kroon 1978) illustration) almost certainly that of Acleros mackenii (Figure 30), but it failed to hatch. This and another ovum were found in the middle of the leaf under surface. The egg was 0.95 x 0.55 mm wide at base x high; hemispherical; 19 ribs rising to about 2 / 3 height, above which additional finer ribs run closer to reticulated apex. Leaf shelters Shelters used by the n- 2 and penultimate instar caterpillars are made by folding a flap under from the edge of the leaf without making any cuts. Feeding is distal to the shelter. The leaf shelters are formed on leaves well within the canopy, and are far from easy to find; it is necessary to trace likely looking shoots of the vine back through the vegetation through which it has grown. The final pupal shelter is prepared by the fifth instar caterpillar from a single leaf of the host plant. Firstly, the leaf is securely attached to the plant (or the rearing container) with silk to strengthen the petiole; then the caterpillar cuts through the mid-rib just short of the apex, and cuts an irregular arc from the apex to rejoin the mid-rib towards the base of the leaf (Figure 31); the shelter then hangs from the bared mid-rib, and the pupa which is formed with the head to the distal end of the shelter is exposed between the two irregular flaps on each side. Caterpillar The penultimate instar caterpillar is dull green with a black head (Figure 32). Head 1.36 x 1.44 mm wide x high (n = 3), widest near base; sides relatively straight, slightly indent at vertex; T 1 concolorous; body dull green with extensive subdorsal and dorsolateral area whitish with translucent dull green speckles; there are just apparent traces of dorsolateral diagonal lines which will be much more developed in the final instar; pale tracheal lateral line; spiracles pale, inconspicuous, except that of A 8 more conspicuous; all legs concolorous. It is only in the final instar that the striking markings of the head become apparent (Figure 33.2). The following description was made from caterpillar 90 / 50 B when 18 mm long (Figure 33). Head relatively small, 2.12 x 2.17 mm wide x high (n = 2,3); rounded, widest in basal half, indent at vertex; epicranium face white, with narrow dark redbrown border along sutures and laterally; within this white area, a horizontal red-brown line at about one third from bottom (this line is dull green in a caterpillar collected at Thika 98 / 203); the upper part of the white area divided by an angled dull green line from near adfrontal, but stopping short of the dark red-brown border; adfrontals, clypeus and frons dull green; a diffuse dark spot on inner margin of adfrontal just below horizontal line; posterior part of head dull green with irregular white subdorsal, lateral and ventrolateral blotches; posterior margin darker. T 1 dull green, dorsal plate concolorous. Body marked with a ‘ herring bone’ effect due to dull green ground colour overlaid with whitish yellow, which in turn is speckled with the ground colour especially laterally, and gaps in the yellowwhite overlay make narrow lines of ground colour: a dorsal line; a series of diagonal lines running from the dorsal line to the level of the spiracles; the first running from the anterior margin of A 1 to the posterior margin of A 2, and the seventh from mid A 7 to mid A 8; the anterior six of these lines expand dorsolaterally to form a spot from which two small lines radiate, one posteriorly and one posterodorsally; spiracles pale, inconspicuous; all legs concolorous; anal plate pointed posteriorly, almost triangular, with strong white setae. Wax glands develop as a contiguous patch on the underside of A 7 – 8, apart from a narrow ventral line as the caterpillar prepares for pupation. The fifth instar lasts 13 – 14 days. Pupa The pupa (Figure 34) is cryptically coloured, which reflects the fact that it is substantially visible in the camouflaged shelter. No written description was prepared. There is a coating of wax particles inside the pupal shelter, but not on the pupa. The pupal stage lasted 14 – 16 days. Natural enemies MJWC collected a mummified penultimate instar caterpillar on Desmodium repandum in Kakamega Forest, 6 Jan 1989 (89 / 5) which in view of the associated feeding and shelter constructed was most probably this species or the next. An adult ichneumonid emerged 9 days later.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA3FFFE9BFDF8D6FD0BB87C.taxon	discussion	This species was originally described as Apaustus leucopygus Plötz from Cameroons, but since the name was preoccupied, Mabille provided the replacement name used. The range of the species extends from West Africa to Kenya, and South to Mozambique. In Kenya, this species, like the last, is restricted to the rain forests of the West and the Shimba Hills, where according to Sevastopulo (1974) it is not uncommon in the Makardara Forest. In these localities it is not rare, but not usually as common as A. mackenii. The adults come readily to flowers, such as Justicia flava (Figure 35.2). We have not reared this species, but Sevastapulo (unpublished) has done so from caterpillars on “ an unidentified twiner (Papilionaceae) ” in the Shimba Hills, Kenya, although he did not publish this food plant record (Sevastopulo 1974, 1975, 1981). Larsen (1991) and Ackery et al. (1995) give the food plant as an unidentified Fabaceae. Vuattoux (1999) reared one specimen from caterpillars collected on cultivated cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, in Côte d’Ivoire. Checking Sevastopulo’s (unpublished) illustrations and descriptions we can see no significant difference from MJWC’s observations on A. mackenii (above). Sevastopulo (unpublished) stated that the pupa is formed “ between two spun-together leaves ”, but his photographs show a shelter similar to that described below for A. mackenii, except that the distal part of the leaf is not cut away.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA0FFFF9BFDF909FDB4BAB8.taxon	discussion	This genus is paraphyletic, and probably only the type species will be left in Meza once the species that do not belong have been removed (Larsen, pers. comm. 2012). Vuattoux (1999) has reared M. meza from Paspalum conjugatum once. Larsen (2005) questioned this, as the other members of the genus as then defined are dicotyledon feeders. However, the reported disparate food plants together with differences in genitalia and wing pattern support the break up of the genus (Larsen, pers. comm. 2012). Vuattoux’s food plant record should be accepted until further information suggests otherwise. Vuattoux (1999) has reared three other species of Meza in Côte d’Ivoire: M. mabea (Holland) from Dalbergia heudelotii, D. oblongifolia and Baphia pubescens (Fabaceae), M. indusiata (Mabille) five times from Hugonia platysepala (Linaceae), and M. cybeutes volta (Miller) from Dichapetalum madagascariense (= D. guineense) (Dichapetalaceae). Larsen (2005) repeats these records, but points out that the first is referable to M. leucophaea (Holland), based on a voucher specimen.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA1FFFF9BFDFD41FEF8BC62.taxon	description	The food plant at Solwezi, Zambia, was ‘ kafundula’. Given that Dollman (unpublished) refers to the food plant as ‘ a leguminous shrub “ kafundula ” ’, this is probably Dalbergia melanoxylon (Fabaceae), rather than Balanites aegyptiaca (Zygophyllaceae), both of which have had this Lunda common name applied (FAO 1988, ICRAF 2012) and have similar small leaves compatible with a sketch in Dollman’s notebook and associated with pupal remains in the Natural History Museum, London. Dollman (unpublished) painted the caterpillar life size (Figure 36). The head is dark, with the dorsal half of the face white, two dark streaks on each epicranium extend from the basal edge into this white marking. T 1 – 3 plain dull green. Body dull green; A 1 – A 9 a pair of narrow white dorsal lines which diverge in the anterior and posterior part of each segment, but converge to meet in the middle of each; A 1 – A 8 a narrow white dorsolateral line. The caterpillar lives in a leaf shelter (‘ domicile’), but generally pupates on the upper surface of a single leaf, lying along the midrib; the leaf lightly drawn together by a few threads, but by no means closed. There are six of Dollman’s emerged pupae in the Dry Early Stages Collection of The Natural History Museum, London (Figure 37), three on a leaf upper surface as he described. The leaflets are oval; 3 – 5 cm long x 2 – 3 cm wide; very short petiole. White waxy powder on silk mat on leaf. Pupa distinctive; rounded, quite broad; spiracles inconspicuous, do not protrude; no frontal spike; proboscis projects to a little short of cremaster (one specimen); slight lateral flange at base of cremaster; pale brown; whitish speckles all over; dark dorsal dash (elongate longitudinally) on posterior margin of thorax; faint pale dorsal line on abdomen, more or less continuous anterior half, interrupted posterior half; a distinctive white double spot on posterior margin A 3 (small) and anterior margin A 4 (larger, elongate longitudinally), set in a brown oval (perhaps red in life); black dorsal dash on A 8 and two smaller dashes dorsally on cremaster.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA1FFFF9BFDF9E0FC62BCB4.taxon	discussion	This is a small genus of four species, restricted to West and central Africa (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995). We have found no published information on the food plants or early stages.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFA1FFC09BFDF8D9FEA1BB00.taxon	discussion	This is the type species of the genus (Evans 1937). Although the life history has not been reported, there is an emerged pupa in ABRI, from Mt Kala (2), 26 Feb 1996, Cameroon, reared from an unidentified Dicotyledon (S. C. Collins pers. comm.). Pupa 22 mm; brown; darker brown streak from subdorsal on A 1 (broad) to lateral after wing cases (narrower); broad band from A 2 joins this in same segment, a narrow band from A 3 joins in A 4; no frontal spike; proboscis sheath was not visible; spiracles T 1 raised white, brown on top. Final instar head capsule pale brown on face, brown laterally and posteriorly; face not clearly visible: dark spot on upper adfrontal; two dark streaks on epicranium, one just above spot on adfrontal, the other between this and apex, broader inward and narrowing outward.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9EFFC09BFDFAA0FCA1BCCD.taxon	discussion	This is a genus of about ten species, restricted to the Afrotropical Region. Since the treatment in Evans (1937), Usher (1980) revised the five species of what he called the A. caesar complex of species, Larsen (2005) indicated additional adjustments, and new species have since been described (Congdon & Collins 1998, Larsen & Congdon 2012). Vuattoux (1999) lists a single food plant record of ‘ Andronymus sp. hero / caesar ’ reared from a caterpillar reared on Cynometra megalophylla (Fabaceae). The status of the reared adult was uncertain because it was a crumpled female, having failed to emerge and expand its wings properly, but it belonged in the group including A. hero and A. caesar, and most likely was one of these two species.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9EFFC19BFDF971FD80BB25.taxon	discussion	Two subspecies are recognised: the nominate caesar from West Africa, and ssp. philander (Hopffer) from East Africa. In Evans’ (1937) treatment of this species, the original type locality of the nominate subspecies from West Africa is uncertain as Fabricius (1793) incorrectly gave the type locality as ‘ Indiis’. However, a painting of Fabricius’ species in Jones’ Icones (an iconotype) make it clear that Fabricius described the West African subspecies. The central, East and southern Africa subspecies, philander was described from Mozambique (Hoppfer 1855). Subspecies caesar has the white area of the hind wing underside tinted yellow, whereas in philander this area is usually white (Evans 1937). However, in parts of its Kenya range, ssp. philander also has the hind wing underside tinted yellow, as shown in Figure 40 of a specimen reared from Lower Meru Forest, and noted as common around Mt Kenya (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2012).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9EFFC19BFDF971FD80BB25.taxon	description	Ackery et al. (1995) and Larsen (2005) include food plant records for both subspecies together; however, their records are derived from other works, which can be attributed to subspecies, and the food plants of the two subspecies are treated separately below.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9FFFC39BFDFE29FCE3BAB8.taxon	description	Several food plants were documented in the 1960 s: Lecaniodiscus cupanioides (Sapindaceae) in Ghana (Forsyth 1966), and small numbers of this hesperiid (given as A. philander) were found at Ibadan on Afrormosia elata in May, on Isoberlinia doka in October, and on Pterocarpus mildbraedii (all Fabaceae) in November (Roberts 1969). Subsequently, in Côte d’Ivoire, Vuattoux (1999) reared 30 adults, 18 from the Fabaceae, Berlinia grandiflora and Detarium senegalense, and 12 from the Sapindaceae, Blighia unijugata and B. sapida. MJWC spread and reexamined voucher specimens for his identifications of Vuattoux’s reared Andronymus spp.; although the vouchers for A. caesar caesar were correctly identified, one voucher for A. hero, reared from Anthonota sp. (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae), proved to be A. caesar caesar, so this is an additional food plant record for this species. MJWC found the early stages on the flush growth of a 2 m sapling of Deinbollia insignis (Sapindaceae) in a forest clearing at Ibadan, Nigeria (94 / 111) and (unconfirmed) on B. unijugata (MJWC 318) at Adiopodoumé, Côte d’Ivoire (89 / 201). The following observations are mostly based on the last collection, which unfortunately was parasitized, so that its association with this name is based on the close similarity to subspecies philander and the material of ssp. caesar reared in Nigeria. Ovum Ova associated with collection 89 / 201 on Blighia unijugata in Côte d’Ivoire were 1.1 mm in diameter; hemispherical, slightly indented at micropyle; smooth apart from 36 – 41 very fine ribs; pink, dark pink at micropyle; eclosed ova are white. They were laid on the leaf upper surface about 10 mm from the margin. Leaf shelters Caterpillars of 10 – 13 mm (n- 2 and penultimate instars) made simple one or two cut leaf shelters from the edge of a leaf. Of three shelters observed, two had a cut at each end, while the third had a cut at one end only, and two shelter lids were folded upwards, while a third was folded downwards. Caterpillar The n- 3 instar head capsule was 0.8 x 1.0 mm (n = 2) wide x high; widest at base, indent at vertex; dark brown; shiny; faintly reticulate. The n- 2 instar caterpillar measured 10 mm at the premoult stage; head 1.2 x 1.4 mm wide x high (n = 2); dark brown as n- 3 instar; body shiny, translucent with dark green gut contents visible. The penultimate instar was similar: head 1.8 x 2.0 mm (n = 1) wide x high; body cuticle was white, more opaque and less shiny; this instar took just 2 – 3 days. The final instar was not described, but the head capsule was 3.1 mm high. The caterpillar reared on Deinbollia insignis in Nigeria (94 / 111) was photographed (Figure 38). Although the photographs are out of focus, they are included here as they are sufficient to show that the caterpillar is within the range of variation documented for A. caesar philander (below, Figure 44). The fully mature caterpillar 94 / 111 A had wax glands ventrolaterally on A 1 – 2 and A 7 – 8, and in a diffuse lateral patch on A 2 – 8. Pupa The pupa of 88 / 201 A (Figure 39) measured 17 mm; head bulbous; light brown with a weak dark dorsal line dividing anteriorly; darker chevrons dorsally on abdominal segments. Natural enemies A tachinid larva emerged from the pupa 89 / 201 C which was collected as penultimate instar caterpillar; it formed a puparium (6.3 x 2.8 mm long x widest) but failed to emerge.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9DFFC99BFDFEDDFC1ABAB8.taxon	discussion	The central, East and southern Africa subspecies, philander, occurs in most damp forests in Kenya, but does not seem to extend much above 1600 m. Sevastopulo (1974) considered it fairly common in Makardara Forest, Shimba Hills, throughout the year. In Tanzania this is a woodland butterfly up to 1500 m, apparently absent from the northern highlands (Keilland 1990), although MJWC found it at Kitovu Forest on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Adults are only seen occasionally, but the caterpillars are readily found on flush growth of seedlings along paths and in clearings, where several individuals often occur on the same shoot.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF9DFFC99BFDFEDDFC1ABAB8.taxon	description	Adult behaviour MJWC observed an adult laying eggs on a sapling of Deinbollia borbonica in the middle of a shady track at the edge of the forest behind Diani Beach, 10 Dec 1990. This was obviously a favoured site as quite a number of ova and hatched ova were present, although no caterpillars could be found. MJWC has caught adults coming to flowers in Kakamega Forest. Food plants Aurivillius (1925) provides brief notes on the caterpillar and pupa, but does not give a food plant. Early records of recorded food plants include Sapindaceae and Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae) (Table 1). In Kenya, MJWC found eggs and caterpillars on small plants (0.5 – 3.0 m) of the tree Deinbollia borbonica (Sapindaceae) at Diani Beach and Kitovu Forest (91 / 03), and in Lower Meru Forest (90 / 32) on tree saplings of an unidentified species tentatively placed in Meliaceae (MJWC # 86). Since only two species of Deinbollia occur in Kenya, and the second, D. kilimandscharica, only occurs above 1000 m (Beentje 1994), we conclude that Sevastopulo’s records from Deinbollia sp. in Kenya (Sevastopulo 1974, and subsequent sources in Table 1) are referable to D. borbonica. In addition, there are parasitized remains (Apanteles (s. l.) sp.) associated with this species in ABRI that were collected as a caterpillar on Lecaniodiscus sp. (Sapindaceae) at Kakamega Forest (S. C. Collins pers. comm.). In Tanzania, TCEC found it on what appeared to be a Brachystegia sp., feeding on lush, soft coppice growth on a roadside at Katuma, Mpanda, 19 Feb 1996; on Julbernardia globiflora at Mishamo, western Tanzania, May 1997; and on Pericopis sp. at Kihansi Gorge, Mar 2000 and Chivanjee Estate, Tukuyu, 20 Nov 2003 (all Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae). Leaf shelters Shelters for small caterpillars are made by cutting two notches from the edge of the leaf, and folding the resultant flap under (Figure 41.1); additional feeding at one or both notches means that the shelter can be folded over further at one or both ends. As the caterpillar grows, the shelters gets correspondingly larger and longer (Figure 41.1). The pupa is formed in a specially prepared shelter (Figure 41.2), similar in concept to that described for Acleros mackenii above. The pupal chamber is suspending by quite a long section of bared mid-rib, and the chamber itself is completely enclosed by the leaf remaining. Of the 17 eclosed pupae preserved in ABRI, two are preserved together with their complete leaf shelter. One is constructed with a leaf of about 80 x 50 mm, oval, pointed apically; one half untouched, the other has been eaten from the margins and folded over upwards, the fold on midrib at basal end and a little away from midrib at distal end; the central area is about 30 x 12 mm, with 6 irregular extensions of 4 – 11 mm along the margin of the shelter lid; pupa with head distal. The other is on a leaf remains 42 mm long, distally having been completely eaten; leaf flat at mid-rib, and folded over upwards a little to one side; the lower half of the leaf has been mostly eaten, with three irregular projections from mid rib in basal half of shelter; a central semi-oval 24 x 8 mm, with six irregular projections of 6 – 12 mm (photo); pupa with head distal. Ovum Ovum 1.0 x 0.75 mm wide x high; chorion transparent, but due to the contents ovum appears pink, darker on the micropyle (Figure 42); minutely sculptured with 29 – 30 fine ribs, more evident towards the base than the apex. Ova are laid on the leaf upper surface. Caterpillar The youngest instars are translucent green with a black head, but as they mature the body becomes increasingly white in colour (Figure 43 penultimate instar). In the striking fifth instar, the body is completely white, apart from a slightly darker dorsal line, a subdorsal dot in the anterior half and a dorsolateral dot in the posterior half of A 1 – 7 (Figure 44.1); and the head brown with yellow spots on epicrania and adfrontals, 3.0 x 3.3 mm wide x high (Figure 44.1). Caterpillars collected by TCEC in Tanzania show that the yellow markings of the head may be pale (Figure 44.2), and the sutures each side of the adfrontals may be dark (Figure 44.3 – 4). A single caterpillar collected on Pericopsis sp. at Kihansi Gorge had the head ground colour almost black (Figure 44.5), but without further material we can only speculate as to whether this represents an extreme variation or a local population. Pupa The pupal shelter is similar to those shown for A. hero below (Figure 49). As the pupa is more or less fully enclosed in its leaf shelter, it is not surprising that it is less well camouflaged (Figure 45) than that of A. mackenii which is substantially exposed in its shelter (Figure 43). The inside of the pupal chamber is lightly covered with a powdery white wax, but little of this is deposited on the pupa itself. The fore wing tips are slightly falcate, and the proboscis sheath extends 0.7 mm beyond the tips. The pupal stage takes 16 days (range 14 – 17). Natural enemies The caterpillars from Lower Meru Forest were very heavily parasitised by an Apanteles (s. l.) sp. The Apanteles larvae emerge from the body of the mature fifth instar caterpillar after it has started construction of the pupal leaf shelter. Cocoons are arranged on each side of the corpse, in a loose mass; each cocoon is attached to the substrate by a short silk stalk at one end, and the other end sticks up. This is completely different to other Apanteles cocoons which MJWC have reared from Hesperiidae for which the cocoons are arranged loosely or neatly in rows with the cocoons parallel to and attached to the substrate. Out of 14 caterpillars from Lower Meru Forest which MJWC collected at the beginning of April 1990, nine grew to maturity, of which eight were parasitised, although only two batches of cocoons out of the eight successfully emerged. These comprised one batch of 59 cocoons, from which two males and 52 females emerged (90 / 32 B), while the other batch comprised 50 cocoons, but only six females emerged (90 / 32 A). The cocoons took about five days to emerge. A similar group of 29 cocoons reared from A. caesar collected on Lecaniodiscus at Kakamega, Kenya, is preserved in ABRI. Discussion Henning & Henning (1989) and Henning et al. (1997) include a description of the early stages, and the latter includes a photograph by R. Paré of the pupa. Although this photograph is a good match to the pupa shown here (Figure 45), the description of the ovum, caterpillar and pupa do not match those described and illustrated here. The only clear difference between the two subspecies is that philander ova have 29 – 30 ribs, whereas those of caesar have 36 – 41. The caterpillars and pupae are very similar and longer series of material would be required to assess whether the minor differences are consistent, but it seems unlikely.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF97FFCC9BFDFEDDFEE2BEA8.taxon	discussion	This species is known from Sierra Leone (type locality) to western Tanzania and northern Zambia. Larsen (2005, in prep.) discusses the colour variation in the hind wing markings of this species. Yellow tinted forms matching the type are generally found in the western part of the range from Senegal to Cote d’Ivoire, and pure white forms (marcus Usher, 1980, type locality Cameroon) are normal east of Ghana, whereas both forms occur together in Ghana. At present these are treated as forms, possibly subspecies, of A. hero, so a comparison of the early stages between the two regions may throw light on this relationship. MJWC has reared it from Côte d’Ivoire (88 / 206) and TCEC from western Tanzania (Figure 46.1).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF97FFCC9BFDFEDDFEE2BEA8.taxon	description	Food plants Vuattoux (1999) reports rearing 19 adults in Côte d’Ivoire, of which 13 were reared from Combretum cuspidatum (Combretaceae) on the banks of the Bandama River, and the remainder from Anthonotha macrophylla (3), A. crassifolia (2) (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) and an unidentified plant (1). MJWC identified this material, and retained some voucher papered specimens, which were spread and re-examined for the current work. Of the three male vouchers for Andronymus hero, one reared from Anthonotha sp. is A. caesar caesar, another reared from Anthonotha sp. is Andronymus helles Evans and the third, reared from C. cuspidatum, is the white form of A. hero. Based on these voucher specimens, Anthonotha sp. is a new food plant record for A. caesar caesar and A. helles, and the records of A. hero from Anthonotha spp. should be considered unconfirmed, pending re-examination of the other reared specimens. MJWC has reared the western population of Andronymus hero from Combretum aphanopetalum (MJWC 321) in Côte d’Ivoire (88 / 206) and TCEC has reared the eastern population from succulent young leaves of an unidentified Combretum sp. Kasye Forest, Kigoma, Tanzania. Leaf shelters The final instar caterpillar of the Côte d’Ivoire collection made a simple shelter by rolling one edge of a leaf under, with feeding to the midrib basal to this. The shelter was held open in position with two strands of silk. Ovum The ovum (Figure 46.2) is similar to that of A. caesar. One observed in Côte d’Ivoire was laid on the leaf upper surface, 10 mm from the leaf tip. Caterpillar The mature caterpillar from Côte d’Ivoire (88 / 206) measured 26 mm; head widest at base, indent at vertex, 2.8 x 2.9 mm wide x high; marked in yellow and black on shades of brown (Figure 47); body greenish white with waxy bloom especially on A 7 – 8; subdorsal markings on A 2 – 7 appear to be due to patches of transparent cuticle with no wax bloom: A 2, A 7 two small spots (<< 1 mm) with scattered adjacent dots; A 3 – 6 three adjacent spots of about 0.5 mm, with scattered adjacent dots; scattered dots dorsolaterally on A 3 – 7; one of two caterpillars had a faint darker dorsal line. The final instar of the material from Tanzania (Figure 48) is clearly very similar, but the head markings are paler yellow or white; the brown lateral line from vertex laterally on head is simple in the Côte d’Ivoire material, but has a branch running from near the apex to the ventral posterior margin; the subdorsal markings are variably arranged around 1 – 3 spots on each segment. More material would need to be examined to see if these differences are consistent. Pupa The Côte d’Ivoire pupa is shown in Figure 49.1, and that from Tanzania in Figure 49.2. The shelters are similar, and resemble those of A. caesar. The markings of both are similar, and resemble those of A. caesar. We do not know whether the striking difference in ground colour is significant — green in Côte d’Ivoire and orange in Tanzania — although it is beyond the differences we expect during normal development, more material would be needed to assess the constancy of this character. It should be borne in mind that the exposed pupae of many butterflies, including Papilionidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae, can be dimorphic or polymorphic in colour and pattern, and this has been associated with the colour of their background and exposure to light, based on the pioneering work of Poulton (1887, 1892), revisited by recent workers (e. g. Hazel et al. 1998, Stefanescu 2004). We are not aware of any work in this respect on the pupae of Hesperiidae, but it would only apply to the relatively few species whose pupae are formed in exposed situations, as is the case with Acleros and Andronymus spp. Discussion The early stages of the two populations are very similar, but the differences are inadequate to strongly support any hypotheses concerning relatedness. If the differences noted are consistent, this would support at least separate subspecies. The early stages are also similar to those of A. caesar, whereas those of A. marina treated below are very different.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF92FFCC9BFDFAADFAE1BC46.taxon	discussion	This species, the smallest of the group, was described from Cameroon (Evans 1937) and is found from Sierra Leone to western Tanzania (Evans 1937, Kielland 1990, Larsen 2005). Vuattoux reared at least one specimen of this species from Anthonotha sp., but MJWC misidentified Vuattoux’s specimen as Andronymus hero, under which name this food plant record was published (Vuattoux 1999) – see discussion of food plants under A. hero.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF92FFCD9BFDF9CAFC18BBB5.taxon	description	Life history The food plant is Baikiaea insignis (= B. eminii) (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae). The ova (Figure 50.1) are laid on tender young foliage of saplings in deep shade in the forest. The newly emerged caterpillars cut and roll a portion of a leaf in which to hide (Figure 50.2). They develop very quickly, a necessary adaptation if they are to pupate before the leaves of the food plant harden and cease to be nutritious. The large larvae seem to eat continuously, and develop at a phenomenal rate. The leaves of the sapling food plant are very large and soft, and fall in folds, and so the larger larvae do not need to make shelters. They pupate among the leaves, not in shelters. Both the caterpillars (Figure 51) and the pupae (Figure 52) are astonishingly brightly marked, with distinctive rows of black marks on a pale or yellow background, not seen on other members of the genus, or indeed any other Afrotropical Hesperiinae so far, and can only be compared with some of the brightly coloured Coeliadinae, particular Pyrrochalcia iphis (Drury), where warning colouring of a distasteful species is thought to be involved (Cock 2010). We have traced no observations that Baikiaea spp. are toxic or distasteful, so it seems unlikely that A. marina is sequestering toxins. If this is the case, the brightly coloured early stages of A. marina could reflect synthesised toxins, or it could be mimicking some other unknown distasteful organism in the environment.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF93FFD09BFDFDD3FB95BA93.taxon	discussion	Plötz (1884) described this species as Apaustus neander from Loango, which Ackery et al. (1995) give as in Democratic Republic of Congo (= Zaïre), but probably this should be Gabon (e. g. Purdy 1822). It occurs in the nominate subspecies from Senegal through West Africa (uncommon), central, East and southern Africa (Evans 1937, Larsen 2005). Riley (1928) described A. thomasi Riley for the population on Sao Thomé, and Evans (1937) placed this as a subspecies of neander, hence the need for the trinomial for the mainland subspecies.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF93FFD09BFDFDD3FB95BA93.taxon	description	In Kenya, it is primarily found in coastal regions (Larsen 1991) matching the restricted range of the known food plant Brachystegia spiciformis (below). However, given its propensity for mass movements (below) it could occur anywhere in the country, and this may be the origin of Neave’s (1904) record from Nyangori, north of Kisumu. MJWC has one specimen taken at light at Ndara Ranch, near Voi, but has not seen it further inland. Adult behaviour Most authors dealing with African skippers have recorded or commented on A. neander as a migratory species — or at least one that makes mass movements — including Holland (1896), Swanepoel (1953), Gifford (1965), Pinhey (1965), Lindsey & Miller (1965), Pinhey & Loe (1977), Dickson & Kroon (1978), Kielland (1990), Larsen (1991), Pringle et al. (1994), Henning et al. (1997), Larsen (2005), and Woodhall (2005). Migrations are primarily in eastern and southern Africa, whereas in West Africa, it seems to be A. gander Evans that indulges in mass movements rather than A. neander (Fontaine 1988, Larsen 1995, 2005). C. B. Williams, the pioneer of the study of insect migration, collected observations on actual migratory flights of A. neander (Williams 1928, 1930 a, 1930 b, 1933, 1937, Williams et al. 1942, Williams 1957, 1958). Later, he summarised his earlier publications and records regarding mass movements of this skipper in Africa, together with those of other authors (Cookson 1958, Sevastopulo 1962, Handman 1963, etc.) and provides more detail of his observations at Amani, Usambara Mountains, Tanzania (Williams 1976). At Amani, where C. B. Williams was resident in the late 1920 s, he found that mass movements occurred in many but not all years, in March, April and sometimes the beginning of May, and that the direction of flight was almost entirely between the south and southwest. Williams observed the 1928 mass movement in some detail. This flight lasted for seven weeks, with the skippers moving SSW on every fine day. The peak occurred on 1 April 1928 when about 500 skippers per minute were passing on a 20 yard front. Males and females were represented in equal numbers. The skippers normally flew at a height of 1.3 – 2.0 m, but at the edge of forest blocks slowly rose to 6 – 9 m. The flight was in channels of high concentration, rather than on a uniformly dense front, perhaps because the skippers flew around obstacles rather than over them. Based on a measured flight speed of 15 – 19 km / h, Williams extrapolated that these flights may have started from the Kenya Coast some three days earlier, and that if they continued, they would be in the vicinity of Lake Malawi ten days later. Williams (1976) listed mass movements at the Kenya Coast in March and April only: end of March 1911 near Rabai, flying to the NNE (Rogers 1912); March 1930 near Malindi, flying to ‘ a little south of west’ (R. M. Graham in Williams 1933); mid-April 1960 at Bumburi (= Bamburi), Mombasa, flying south (Sevastopulo 1962). Sevastopulo (1974) notes that A. neander " migrates through the Makardara Forest [Shimba Hills], sometimes present in vast numbers, sometimes absent. Recorded for all months except November. " We interpret this as being present in all months, not migrating in all months. Dewhurst (1987) records a mass movement at the Kenya coast, which we quote in full, since the original is rather inaccessible: “ On 6 January 1997, on the Dida to Roka road on the southern edge of the Sokoke Forest, what could only be described as a swarm of the Hesperid butterfly Andronymus (probably) neander Evans, was seen crossing the road at between 1 and 3 m high and flying from S. S. E. to N. N. W. at 14.50 h. There were so many butterflies flying so fast that it was impossible to count them. At the onset of a rain shower which lasted only a few minutes, all visible flight stopped, beginning again immediately the rain stopped. ’ MJWC observed a modest mass movement in the Shimba Hills on 12 April 1990. Large numbers were seen flying towards the South across a front from Giriama Point (a headland on the coastal, east side of the hills) to Makadara Forest on the inland side (and perhaps on a wider front, but no observations were made to test this). At Giriama Point they passed at a height of 1 – 3 m at a rate of several a minute, and could be caught with some difficulty by a rapid overtaking shot with the net. In the Makadara Forest the skippers flew higher, at about 4 – 5 m, and were channelled along a forest road at the rate of one every second or two (although no specimens were caught to confirm their identity). Food plants In north-west Zambia, Dollman (unpublished) reared this species from a leguminous tree ‘ mutowo’, a species which was not identified scientifically in his notes. The only use of this vernacular name we have traced is that of Raynes (2007) who lists it as used in Zambia for Isoberlinia spp. (Fabaceae). The food plants according to Van Someren (1974) include Brachystegia randii (?) and B. spiciformis (Fabaceae); the ‘ (?) ’ after the first species indicates that the herbarium material was not adequate for certain identification (introduction to Van Someren 1974). MJWC has seen preserved early stages of Van Someren's material in the National Museums of Kenya (but not recorded details), so these records are presumably based on Van Someren’s own observations in East Africa. Brachystegia randii, described from Zimbabwe, is variously considered a valid name (Tropicos 2012), an unresolved name (The Plant List 2012) or a synonym of B. spiciformis (Brummitt et al. 2007). Given that these food plant records seem to be van Someren’s own observations from East Africa, where only B. spiciformis definitely occurs, it seems reasonable to treat these records as both referring to B. spiciformis. Subsequent authors give the food plants as Brachystegia (Sevastopulo 1974, 1975, Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995, Heath et al. 2002, Larsen 2005) or B. spiciformis (Kielland 1990) or ‘ possibly’ B. spiciformis (Woodhall 2005). Pringle et al. (1994) also give the food plant as B. spiciformis, but specifically based on observations by R. Paré, whereas Henning et al. (1997) give the food plant as B. boehmii, a species of southern Africa, north to Tanzania and Congo (Brummitt et al. 2007). In Côte d’Ivoire, Vuattoux (1999) reared this species on Afzelia africana (Fabaceae) (repeated in Larsen 2005). At variance with these records from Fabaceae, Heath et al. (2002) give Acridocarpus longifolius (= A. smeathmannii; Malpighiaceae) as a food plant (repeated in Larsen 2005), but we think this needs confirmation. Life history We have not reared this species, or found descriptions of the early stages. Although Dollman (unpublished) reared it, he did not paint the caterpillar. He noted that the leaf shelter was a ‘ lightly spun cylinder — the larva resting on the dorsal surface of the leaf’. There is an emerged pupa from Dollman’s collection in the Dry Early Stages Collection of The Natural History Museum, London; it resembles the pupa of Andronymus caesar. As noted above, MJWC has seen preserved early stages of this species from the Van Someren collection in the National Museums of Kenya, but we have not had the opportunity to re-examine these for this account.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF8EFFD09BFDFBACFD4FBFD8.taxon	discussion	Larsen (2012) critically evaluated the genus Melphina and described two new genera for species which had been placed in Melphina. One of these was Melphinyet, established with M. flavina (Evans) as type species and four other species.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF8EFFD09BFDFBACFD4FBFD8.taxon	description	Evans (1937) treated tarace Mabille, flavina Evans, unistriga Holland and statirides Holland as four forms of tarace. Evans (1956) presents T. H. E. Jackson’s observation that tarace, flavina and unistriga should be regarded as species since the forms fly together, are easily separable and do not intergrade, but did not accept this view. Subsequently, Lindsey & Miller (1965) agreed with Jackson’s view and formally raised all four to valid species separated by differences of the male genitalia.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF8EFFD39BFDFA77FD8FBD1A.taxon	description	Food plants MJWC’s records are from the Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hurifolia (89 / 210 Forêt de Yapo, plant voucher MJWC 314) and M. spinosa (89 / 203 Adiopodoumé, plant voucher MJWC 317; 89 / 211 Foret de Yapo, no plant voucher). Vuattoux (1999) records a single rearing of Melphinyet statirides from Alchornea cordifolia, based on an identification by MJWC. At that time, the specimens in MJWC’s collection as M. statirides were misidentified M. flavina and M. tarace, so it is likely that Vuattoux’s record is a misidentification for M. flavina (or perhaps M. tarace but Vuattoux’s food plant aligns better with M. flavina). Leaf shelters When collected in the penultimate instar, caterpillar 89 / 203 occupied an irregular two-cut shelter near the apex of the leaf folded over upwards, with feeding basal to this up to the midrib. The final instar caterpillar 89 / 210 was in a similar, but larger shelter. Four days later it had formed a pupal chamber isolated on the bared midrib of a leaf. The shelter was made by folding the leaf lamina upwards on each side of the mid rib, to make a chamber about 35 mm long by 18 mm high and 11 mm thick; the edges were sealed apart from 2 – 3 small holes on top, and a 5 mm entrance distally above the midrib. Four days later the pupa was formed. The caterpillars of collection 89 / 211 were noted to be in similar shelters as those of 89 / 203 and 89 / 210, and the mature caterpillars went on to form pupal shelters similar to that described for 89 / 210 (Figure 55). Caterpillar When collected, the n- 2 instar caterpillar 89 / 203 measured 8 mm; head oval slightly indent at vertex, dull brown. Dorsal plate T 1 black, extending half way laterally. Body dull yellow green, A 8 – 9 darker, brownish; darker where gut contents show, yellow gonads visible A 5. When disturbed it threshes the anterior part of the body about. The penultimate instar was not described, but the head capsule measured 1.9 x 2.1 mm wide x high; oval, indent at vertex; brown; covered with irregular polygons; scattered very short pale setae, those on face widened at apex. When newly moulted to the final instar, it measured 20 mm (Figure 56). Head 3.1 x 3.5 wide x high; rounded, widest near base, strongly indent at vertex; dark brown; rugose, slightly shiny with very short, pale setae, scale-like with a narrow stalk on face. T 1 dark brown transverse plate extends to the level of the spiracle; scattered very short, pale setae stellate at apex. Body translucent dull dark green; cuticle with scattered pale spots except dorsally; setae as T 1; A 5 conspicuous yellow gonads; spiracles yellow, fairly conspicuous; A 8 pale patch dorsal to spiracle; anal plate semi-circular, with fringe of pale setae and with scattered white dots; all legs concolorous. Caterpillar 89 / 211 B was very similar in the final instar to that of 89 / 203 described above. The dots on the body were noted as yellowish and the spiracles as brown and inconspicuous, but these differences may reflect development during the instar or individual variation and are probably not significant. At this stage, one week before making its pupal shelter, the caterpillar measured 28 mm, and when making the pupal shelter it measured 33 mm. Pupa The pupa of 89 / 210 was smooth, rounded and undistinguished; long, brown, erect setae with hooked apex on anterior and posterior portions of the eyes; brown with thorax, appendages and posterior end darker brown; spiracles T 1 paler brown, not significantly protuberant; proboscis sheath extended 0.5 mm beyond wing sheaths. It was supported by a simple silk girdle, and lay amidst loose white waxy flocculence (Figure 57). The adult female (Figure 54.3) emerged after 16 – 21 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF8AFFD59BFDF9E4FA90BDDF.taxon	description	Food plants Two collections, each of one caterpillar (88 / 207, 89 / 212) were made on Manniophyton fulvum (# 313) (Euphorbiaceae) at Forêt de Yapo, Côte d’Ivoire. Although this sprawler-vine with large strongly trilobate leaves was conspicuous and quite common, only one shelter was found on each occasion. The leaves on which the shelters were made were mature, and quite tough, almost scabrous. Leaf shelters Both collections were made of final instar caterpillars in similar shelters (Figure 60). A two cut shelter was made from the middle of one side of the apical lobe of a mature leaf; the two straight cuts start far apart (about 70 mm) and finish close together (20 mm); the shelter lid is 30 mm long and 30 mm wide, with 4 – 5 deep notches from the distal edge; folded over upwards, over the mid vein; the caterpillar must feed from the shelter lid, as it is much smaller than the notch cut from the leaf. Caterpillar The penultimate instar caterpillar 88 / 207 measured 18 mm when collected; head oval, indent at vertex; 2.2 x 2.4 mm high; covered with fine, very short, white setae, widened distally. T 1 fairly broad, transverse, dark brown plate. Body dull green with darker dorsal line and yellow-orange gonads A 5; T 1 legs light brown; all other legs concolorous. The final instar (Figure 61) was similar, but not described; the head was 3.0 mm high, and like that of Melphinyet flavina covered with very short, pale setae; those on the face scale-like with narrow base. Body with setae as M. flavina. When mature wax glands formed ventrally A 1 – A 8. This individual died at pupation, but a similar 30 mm caterpillar (89 / 212) was collected the following year and a female reared. Pupa The pupa was not described or photographed. That of 89 / 212 has not been removed from the pupal leaf shelter, but the pupa of 88 / 207 which died with the final instar larval head capsule stuck over the head of the pupa was examined; it was similar to that of Melphinyet flavina with regard to form, colouring and setae on the eyes.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF88FFD79BFDF994FC10BB00.taxon	discussion	When Evans (1937) described Fresna as a new genus, he made Fresna netopha (Hewitson) the type species and included three other species. Two more species have been described since then (Larsen 2005), making six at present. We have reared no members of this genus, but there are food plant records and at least one published picture of a caterpillar, and these are summarised below.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF88FFD79BFDF994FC10BB00.taxon	discussion	Fresna cojo (Karsch) was reared on four occasions by Vuattoux (1999) in Côte d’Ivoire, each from a different Fabaceae tree: Andira inermis, Millettia thonningii (Faboideae), Anthonotha crassifolia (Caesalpinioideae) and Albizia zygia (perhaps a synonym of A. brownei) (Mimosoideae). Based on Vuattoux’s work, some or all these food plants were listed by Larsen (1991), Ackery et al. (1995), Heath et al. (2002) and Larsen (2005). Larsen (1991) records R. Vuattoux rearing F. netopha (Hewitson) from Paullinia (Sapindaceae), and Ackery et al. (1995) and Heath et al. (2002) repeat this. However, when Vuattoux (1999) published his rearing records, he gave only Afrormosia laxiflora (which has also been placed in the genus Pericopsis) (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae) as the food plant for F. netopha (Hewitson), which Larsen (2005) repeats. In contrast, Vuattoux (1999) records rearing F. nyassae twice from Paullinia pinnata. MJWC has examined a voucher Fresna sp. reared by R. Vuattoux from P. pinnata and it is F. netopha. There seems to have been some confusion between these two Fresna spp. and their respective food plants. Provisionally, the two entries in Vuattoux (1999) should be swapped, i. e. F. nyassae has been reared once from A. laxiflora, and F. netopha has been reared twice from P. pinnata, but this needs to be confirmed by further checking specimens and ideally, additional rearing.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF89FFD89BFDFB01FA8ABC35.taxon	discussion	Evans (1937) treated this species as having four forms: plata Evans, 1937 from Uganda and western Kenya; nyassae Hewitson, 1878 (= roncilgonis Plötz, 1882 (in Plötz 1882 – 1883 )) from Nigeria to Mozambique; joppa Evans, 1937 from Guinea across West Africa (Larsen 2005) to Kenya and Tanzania; and ennuari Riley, 1921 from Congo to southern Sudan to Mozambique. The consistency of these forms and the degree of geographical overlap suggests the possibility that more than one species is involved and that further study is needed (Larsen 2005). Life history information should contribute to this and so it would be important to link food plant and biology information to named forms. Because this is the only species of Fresna for which observations of the early stages are available, we present details here.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF89FFD89BFDFB01FA8ABC35.taxon	description	Food plants Vuattoux (1999) reports that he reared this species twice from the exotic Paullinia pinnata (Sapindaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire. However, as discussed under F. netopha above, a voucher specimen reared from P. pinnata proved to be F. netopha, and it seems likely that Vuattoux actually reared F. nyassae from Afrormosia laxifolia. Based on Larsen’s (2005) observations this record should be form joppa. Le Pelley (1959) lists Albizia sp. (Fabaceae, Mimosoideae) as the food plant of Fresna nyassae plata in Uganda, but does not give a source. Sevastopulo (1975) lists Albizia as the food plant of F. nyassae, and Sevastopulo’s rearing may well be the original source of this record, which is repeated in Kielland (1990), Larsen (1991), Ackery et al. (1995), Heath et al. (2002), and Larsen (2005). Trimen (1893) redescribes what he treats as roncilgonis, but is actually ennuari, and includes a description of the caterpillar and pupa from Mozambique, with the food plant an unidentified small tree. Riley (1921) notes that in Zambia, H. C. Dollman obtained both typical nyassae and a paler form, which Riley described as ennuari based on material which Dollman considered to be a separate species. Dollman (unpublished) reared form ennuari in Zambia on a Fabaceae tree which he identified in the local language as ‘ mutowo’, but did not paint the caterpillar. ‘ Mutowo’ is the same species from which Dollman (unpublished) reared Andronymus philander (see above), which we have tentatively associated with the genus Isoberlinia (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae), which is close to Julbernardia. R. Paré reared F. nyassae from Julbernardia globiflora (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae). Pringle et al. (1994) include a brief description of the ovum and caterpillar as do Henning et al. (1997), who also include Paré’s photographs of the mature caterpillar, pupa and adult female. The location of the original rearing is presumably Zimbabwe since although neither Pringle et al. (1994) or Henning et al. (1997) specify the locality, Woodhall (2005) gives the food plant as “ unknown in South Africa, Julbernardia globiflora in Zimbabwe ”. R. Paré’s photograph of an adult female in Henning et al. (1997) shows that this material is also form ennuari. Leaf shelters Dollman (unpublished) describes the caterpillars of form ennuari making leaf shelters ‘ of the simple type — that of the lightly stitched up leaf, forming a very loose cylinder — the larva being of course on the dorsal surface’. Ovum The ovum is rose pink and is laid on new growth (R. Paré in Pringle et al. 1994 and Henning et al. 1997). Caterpillar According to R. Paré (in Pringle et al. 1994) ‘ the first instar larva is bright scarlet with a black head while later instars are whitish in colour with a brown head. The final instar is smooth and white with a discrete black dorsal longitudinal stripe on each segment except the first two and the last. The headshield is reddish brown with symmetrical orange markings’. R. Paré’s photograph of the final instar caterpillar in Henning et al. (1997) shows that in addition, there is a narrow black dorsal plate on T 1; a black spot laterally on each of A 3 – A 8; three dark triangular marks on the anal plate; and the head is wider nearer the base, indent at vertex; the orange markings comprise the face apart from dark markings: all sutures; the adfrontals, clypeus and frons; a straight line close to and parallel to the epicranial suture; a black spot on the epicranium level with the top of the adfrontals, and another below this; diffusely darker between this last spot and the adfrontals. Trimen’s (1893) description of the caterpillar is similar, except he mentions only one reddish brown spot on the face, and describes the anal plate as ‘ semicircular, green, divided into five triangular portions by four white lines’. Pupa R. Paré’s photograph in Henning et al. (1997) shows the pupa to be smooth with no projections apart from a slightly protuberant T 1 spiracle. It is brown, paler ventrally; a short, pale longitudinal mark on the anterior margin of segments A 3 – 4; covered with a light dusting of white waxy powder, which also lines the interior of the leaf shelter. An emerged pupa of form ennuari from the Dollman collection in the Dry Early Stages Collection of The Natural History Museum, London, is similar, but instead of pale dorsal markings it has a weak dorsal line on the thorax and at the anterior margin of A 2 – 3. Discussion Life history information is still rather scanty to draw conclusions, but the fact that H. C. Dollman found nyassae and ennuari together in Zambia but only reared ennuari does support his view that these may be separate species.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF87FFDA9BFDFF09FAE9B820.taxon	discussion	This is a genus of at least 20 species, which is restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, and is in need of revision (Larsen 2005). Early last century, Dollman (unpublished) reared Pl. moritili from Parinari curatellifolia (Chrysobalanaceae, Malpighiales) in Zambia, but this record was never published. The Chrysobalanaceae food plants were only rediscovered in the last 30 years. All known food plants are in the Chrysobalanaceae, and the great majority of records are from Parinari spp. Parinari curatellifolia is a large spreading tree up to 13 m, characteristic of sandy soils and open deciduous woodland and is seldom cut down as its fruit (mbolola plum) is valued by local people (Palgrave 1983). It is found through tropical Africa (National Research Council 2008) to south-west Kenya (Beentje 1994) and south to northern South Africa (Palgrave 1983). Maranthes floribunda is a tree of Zambezian woodland (White et al. 2001) that can easily be confused with Pa. curatellifolia. Parinari excelsa, is a tree associated with forests through West Africa, east to Tanzania (not Kenya) and south to Mozambique, as well as South Africa (White 1978), and is used as a food plant by Pl. galesa. A third species occurring mainly in southern Africa is the low growing (suffrutex) Pa. capensis, found in sandy areas (Palgrave 1983), which in suitable habitat can be found as far north as the Mpanda and Tabora Regions of western Tanzania (K. Vollesen, pers. comm., 2013). Recently M. goetzeniana was found abundantly in Mabu forest in Northern Mozambique — it was previously thought to be an Usambara endemic. Other species of Maranthes occur in West Africa — one having been recorded as a food plant of Platylesches in Côte d’Ivoire (Vuattoux 1999). Other species of Parinari and Maranthes are likely to be food plants. In addition to the eight species of Platylesches we have documented below, two other species are known to feed on Chrysobalanaceae, and Pl. dolomitica Henning & Henning, 1997, which is considered ‘ vulnerable’ in Gauteng Province, South Africa, is suspected to feed on Pa. capensis (Woodhall 2005, Henning et al. 2009).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF87FFDA9BFDFF09FAE9B820.taxon	description	There are no food plant records from other plant taxa, except for an early record from South Africa of Pl. galesa feeding on Ehrharta erecta and other grasses (Murray 1959), which has been repeated in the subsequent literature (Dickson & Kroon 1978, Kielland 1990, Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995). However, in light of more recent records from Parinari spp., grasses are now considered doubtful (Heath et al. 2002) or incorrect (Larsen 2005, Woodhall 2005). We agree that all records of grasses as food plants should be discounted. In this series of papers, we have followed the leaf shelter classification and terminology of Greeney & Jones (2003) and Greeney (2009), summarised in Cock (2010), which is based on shelter construction, particularly the number of main cuts used to make a shelter. Congdon et al. (2008) also considered this question, and adopted a functional approach to the classification of leaf shelters, summarised in Cock & Congdon (2011 a). This functional classification is especially relevant to the genus Platylesches, and so is presented here again. Tube or tubular shelters. The caterpillar folds or rolls a leaf, and eats the leaf from the apex back towards the base, extending the shelter backwards as it goes. When it reaches the base of the leaf it moves to a new one and repeats the process until fully fed. Some species of Hesperiinae which feed on dicotyledons do this, including some Platylesches spp. These Platylesches spp. and the Andronymus spp. treated above feed on flush leaves near the growing point of the plant, completing development quickly before the leaves harden. The following tube shelter builders are treated below: Pl. galesa, Pl. moritili, Pl. neba and Pl. picanini. Chamber shelters. The caterpillar makes a more or less permanent shelter often in more mature foliage, coming out primarily at night to feed, and returning to the chamber during the day. The caterpillar only makes a new shelter when it outgrows the old one, or when the food source becomes too distant. Most Pyrginae do this (Cock 2010, Cock & Congdon 2011 a, b) and so do some Platylesches spp. These species usually develop more slowly, perhaps because mature foliage is less nutritious. A rearing container containing a single tube species Platylesches caterpillar will contain more frass in the morning than a container of a dozen chamber species caterpillars. Of the Platylesches spp. whose biology is now known, the following are chamber makers: Pl. ayresii, Pl. langa, Pl robustus, Pl. shona and Pl. tina. In TCEC’s experience, the tube-making Platylesches spp. do not pupate in their shelters, and he has not found their pupae in the wild. If the caterpillars are sleeved out, pupae are found amongst leaf litter in the bottom of the bag or in silk lined cocoons in folds of the bag near the bottom, suggesting that they would normally pupate in litter on the ground. In captivity, the old tubes might constitute leaf litter and be incorporated into a pupation chamber, but caterpillars often pupate under leaves on the bottom of the box. Chamber-making Platylesches spp., on the other hand, invariably pupate in their shelters, closing the shelter entrances with a circle of elongate triangular flaps (Figures 64.2 and 68.2) or loose threads (Pl. shona). TCEC has reared a further three Platylesches spp. from tube shelters on Pa. curatellifolia in Tanzania, which belong to the group which includes Pl. iva Evans, 1937 and Pl. affinissima Strand, 1920. Platylesches iva is known from Ivory Coast through Nigeria to Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania, where it is reported from a single butterfly from Dendene Forest, south of Dar es Salaam, although Larsen (2005) doubts the identity of this specimen. Platylesches affinissima is known from West Africa to Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe; in Tanzania it is a western butterfly, with a possible record from the Uluguru Mountains in the east. These caterpillars are rare in TCEC’s experience, and the three raised appear not to agree exactly with either of the two named species. This material, including adults, was documented in Congdon et al. (2008) and repeated here for completeness. Figures 62.1 and 62.2 were each reared once. The narrow head of Figures 62.2 and 6 is unlike any other Platylesches sp. and we do not believe it can represent the same species as Figure 62.1, yet the adults both come closest to Pl. affinissima, although that of Figure 62.2 is small. Figures 62.3 – 4 show another species reared twice, the adults of which are close to Pl. iva. The taxonomy of these specimens has yet to be resolved, but will be addressed in T. B. Larsen’s revision of the Afrotropical Hesperiidae, or in an anticipated addendum part to the present series.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF84FFDB9BFDF94FFC22BBB4.taxon	discussion	This species is found in southern Africa, from southern Mozambique, Botswana and northern South Africa (Evans 1937), in dry grassland. TCEC and colleagues found caterpillars of this species commonly on windswept stony hillsides with short grass and patches of Pa. capensis in north-eastern South Africa (near Krugersdorp, Hillshaven and Magaliesberg, Gauteng province) in September 2008, along with those of Pl. neba and Pl. moritili. This is a chamber making species, with a similar eating pattern to that of Pl. tina. Platylesches langa treated below was originally described as a subspecies of Pl. ayresii, and the two are very close.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF84FFDB9BFDF94FFC22BBB4.taxon	description	Food plants Woodhall (1994) lists Pa. capensis as the food plant, based on an observation by M. C. Williams, and this record is repeated by Henning et al. (1997) and Woodhall (2005). TCEC also found caterpillars on Pa. capensis in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Life history The life history has been documented with photographs. The caterpillars make a robust tubular chamber shelter (Figure 64.1), in which it pupates, when the entrance is protected with a valve of about 12 long triangular flaps (Figure 64.2). The final instar head capsule is diffusely marked in red-brown on dark brown (Figure 64.4). The pupa (Figure 64.5 – 6) is dark grey except for the abdomen which is pale grey.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF85FFDC9BFDFDD9FE50BAB8.taxon	discussion	This widespread species was described from West Africa (Hewitson 1877) and reported from Sierra Leone, west to Tanzania and south to Zimbabwe and Mozambique. MJWC encountered this species in Harare, Zimbabwe; he did not see adults, but found a caterpillar (90 / 200) in the Botanical Gardens on a shoot of Pa. curatellifolia (Figure 65). In TCEC’s experience it is generally a species found in or near forest. Larsen (1991) lists Pl. galesa as a species that might occur in Kenya. Now that the food plant is known it should not be too difficult to track it down where the food plant occurs, if it is a Kenyan species.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF85FFDC9BFDFDD9FE50BAB8.taxon	description	Food plants Murray (1959) states that the food plants in South Africa are Ehrharta erecta and certain other grasses, but as discussed in the introduction to Platylesches, all records from grasses should be discounted. Parinari curatellifolia is now known to be a food plant of Pl. galesa, based on our and others’ observations, but probably first observed by Ivan Bampton in the 1980 s. The record from a Parinari sp. by MJWC (pers. comm. T. B. Larsen 1993 in Woodhall 1994) is actually from Pa. curatellifolia in Harare, Zimbabwe (90 / 200), and not from Kenya. Subsequent authors repeat this food plant (Pringle et al. 1994, Henning et al. 1997, Heath et al. 2002, Woodhall 2005, Larsen 2005). TCEC has reared Pl. galesa from Pa. curatellifolia in Malawi (Mt. Mulanje) and Tanzania (Rondo Plateau, southeastern Tanzania; Kihansi Gorge, Udzungwa Mts.) and northern Mozambique (Mt. Jao). The record by TCEC from a tall, woody species of Parnari in the Udzungwa Mountains in Tanzania (pers. comm. T. B. Larsen 1993 in Woodhall 1994) is from Pa. excelsa, and TCEC has also reared Pl. galesa from Pa. excelsa at Mt. Mabu, Mozambique. Ovum The ova shown in Figure 66.1 were laid on the youngest leaves and stems of flush growth of suckers or saplings of about 1 m in the Botanic Gardens, Harare. A final instar caterpillar of Pl. galesa was found at the same time, but adults of Pl. moritili were also flying and the eggs could have been of either species. The living ova (Figure 66.2) are copper-orange in colour and would blend quite well with the hairs of the same colour on young flush growth (Figure 66.1). Once the ova eclose, they are white and quite conspicuous in situ as the newly hatched caterpillar leaves most of the shell uneaten. Leaf shelters The mature caterpillar from Harare had made a shelter by folding a leaf downwards along each side of the mid rib and joining the edges. The caterpillar rested on the midrib (Figure 67.1). Feeding was on the apical portion of the leaf and shelter, and in captivity most the leaf shelter was eaten. Caterpillar No detailed description was prepared, but the final instar caterpillar from Harare is shown in Figure 67. The colour and markings of the head of the final instar caterpillar are different from that of any other Platylesches spp. documented so far. Caterpillars documented by TCEC from the Udzungus and Riondo Plateau, Tanzania, and Mt. Mabu, Mozambique, are almost identical. Pupa The caterpillar from Harare pupated between a leaf and the base of rearing container, and rather than disturb it, it was not documented.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF82FFDD9BFDF9BCFF28BB7F.taxon	discussion	This species is found from western Ghana, east to Tanzania and south to Zimbabwe and Malawi (type locality) (Evans 1937, T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2012), but is very local and rare in West Africa. It was originally described as a subspecies of Pl. ayresii (Evans 1937), but Kielland (1978) and Larsen (1992) recognised the two as separate species, although very close.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF82FFDD9BFDF9BCFF28BB7F.taxon	description	Food plants TCEC has reared this species from Pa. capensis at Mutinondo Wilderness, Zambia, and Pa. curatellifolia at Mufindi, Tanzania (where Pa. capensis does not occur). Life history The leaf shelters (Figure 68.1 – 2) and early stages (Figure 68.3 – 6) are very similar to those of Pl. ayresii (Figure 64), but the final instar head is more sharply marked. Young caterpillars feed in a characteristic way, cutting small notches from the edge of leaves (Figure 68.1), which can be used in the field to locate caterpillars. In Figure 68.1, it can be seen that the first instar shelter on the upper leaf is smaller, and the second instar on the lower leaf is already eating larger portions from the leaf edge. Caterpillars are usually found near the ground — inevitably on the lowgrowing Pa. capensis, but also on Pa. curatellifolia, and differ in this respect from caterpillars of Pl. shona and Pl. robustus.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFF80FFA59BFDFB58FCDCBE17.taxon	discussion	Described from ‘ Caffraria’ (southern Africa) (Wallengren 1857), this species in widespread through West Africa, east to Kenya, and south to northern South Africa (Evans 1937, Larsen 1991). Larsen (1991) records it from the Kavirondo area of Kenya, but not elsewhere in that country. However, ABRI collectors have since found it breeding on Pa. curatellifolia near Embu in dry bush. Congdon et al. (2008) report rearing a variety of caterpillars, with different head markings, the adults of which all appeared to be Pl. moritili. The information presented here is based on the work described in Congdon et al. (2008), with updates where available, but there has been no subsequent progress sorting out the taxonomy of this species or species complex. In the following we designate the different caterpillars as forms, i. e. deliberately choosing a level with no taxonomic validity. At this time we recognise that the different caterpillar heads probably represent different species, but they may also represent different haplotypes of a single polymorphic species. We note that Larsen (2005) illustrates two different male genitalia, both apparently belonging to ‘ Pl. moritili ’, but actually representing Pl. moritili and the new species referred to above (T. B. Larsen, pers. comm. 2012). Clearly, more work is needed. Larsen (1991) remarks that this may be a species of the transition zone between forest and grassland in Kenya. It also occupies this habitat on the Rondo, but in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia and at Mufindi, Tanzania, it is a butterfly of woodland and wooded savannah grassland. If more than one species is involved, this variety of habitat preference is not surprising. Adult behaviour In the National Botanic Gardens, Harare, MJWC observed that males perched on tall grasses (c. 2 m) under an open canopy, and returned to their perches after swift territorial flights. Food plants Early last century, Dollman (unpublished) reared Pl. moritili from ‘ mupundu’ (i. e. the wemba name for mbolola or mbola plum, Pa. curatellifolia) in central Zambia (Mwengwa) and north-western Zambia (Solwezi), and painted the caterpillar. Woodhall (1994) documented rearing Pl. moritili from caterpillars collected on Pa. curatellifolia in Limpopo Province, South Africa, in 1989, and this food plant record is repeated by subsequent authors (Pringle et al. 1994, Heath et al. 2002, Henning et al. 1997, Woodhall 2005, Larsen 2005). The food plant in Ghana may be Maranthes polyandra (= Pa. polyandra) as suggested by Larsen (2005). MJWC found caterpillars on Pa. curatellifolia near Harare, Zimbabwe and TCEC has reared this species from Pa. curatellifolia in Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Leaf shelters Based on observations on form beta at Mukuvisi Woodland, Harare (MJWC 88 / 24), small leaf shelters are made on flush leaves by cutting a semi-circular flap from the edge of the lamina. The shelters of medium grown to near full grown caterpillars are made by rolling an edge of the leaf under to reach the mid rib, and holding it with 8 – 10 thick, multiple strands of pinkish silk, to make a tube 30 – 45 mm long. TCEC found that shelters do not usually involve cuts and may involve one or both edges of a leaf being rolled under (Figure 70). We have not carefully evaluated whether the different caterpillar forms show consistent differences in their shelter construction, but there are no obvious patterns. Ovum An ovum photographed by TCEC (Figure 71) is similar to that thought to be of Pl. galesa (Figure 66), salmon pink with about 16 wall-like ribs. Caterpillar The commonest form on on the Rondo Plateau, south-eastern Tanzania, but also found at Mufindi, Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, and once near Harare, Zimbabwe, was form alpha (Figure 72.1 – 2). Form beta (Figure 72.3 – 5) also occurred on the Rondo Plateau, as well eastern Zambia, and north-western Zimbabwe, but was dominant at Mufindi. Other patterns of head markings were found in eastern Zambia and western Zimbabwe (form gamma Figure 72.6 – 7, and form delta Figure 72.8 – 10). The adults of all forms appear to be moritili. In the majority of cases TCEC’s team were dealing with good series of each form from each locality. In localities where there was more than one form, they did not find intermediates between the various head patterns. Where there was only one form, as at Hwange in Zimbabwe, it was constant in appearance. Fully fed caterpillars of all these types turned red prior to pupation (Figures 72.10 and 75.1). Platylesches moritili form alpha caterpillar This form has the darkest head capsule, being black with an arc of white spots on the epicranium, a pair of very pale yellow-brown spots on the adfrontals, and a white spot on the frons (Figure 72.1 – 2). This form was found abundant on the Rondo Plateau at about 850 m, south-eastern Tanzania (Figure 72.1), uncommon at Mufindi, Tanzania, and once near Harare, Zimbabwe, at around 1500 m in Brachystegia woodland (Figure 72.2). The Rondo records are based on many collections as it was common there, but the Harare collection on a single caterpillar, which died soon after collection. The final instar of form alpha appears to be similar to penultimate instars of form gamma (below). The caterpillar which Henning et al. (1997) illustrate as an early instar (alongside a final instar of form delta) is a good match. However, the caterpillar in the photo seems to have a newly cast skin at the anal end and the size of this caterpillar in proportion to the food plant leaf suggests that it is at least in the fourth instar, probably fifth, in which case it could be a final instar of form alpha. Platylesches moritili form beta caterpillar In this form, the face is black with larger white spots on the epicranium than form alpha, larger and browner spots on the adfrontals (but not extending to the dorsal end), and laterally a broad brown line from the vertex to the mouthparts. It has been found below the Mufindi Escarpment, Tanzania, in savannah grassland at about 1250 m (Figure 72.3), where it was the dominant form, uncommonly at the Rondo Plateau, Tanzania, at Mutinondo, in eastern Zambia, in Miombo woodland at about 1500 m (Figure 72.4) and Hwange in north-western Zimbabwe (Figure 72.5). Platylesches moritili form gamma caterpillar The white spots on the epicranium are slightly larger than in form beta, so that the face appears white with dark brown rays; the adfrontals are completely yellow-brown, orange brown ventrally; the frons is white, orange brown dorsally; the lateral band from vertex to mouthparts is paler (Figure 72.6 – 7). These caterpillars have been found on Rondo Plateau, Tanzania (Figure 72.6), Mutinondo, Zambia (Figure 72.7), and Quiterajo, Mozambique (Figure 73). MJWC collected caterpillars which appear to be form gamma at Mukuvisi Woodland at the edge of Harare. Unfortunately none was reared through to adult, either dying or being parasitized (Figure 74). The following description is based on this collection. Stage 1 leaf shelter a semi-circular two-cut flap from edge of leaf. Stage 2 shelter a tube of 30 – 45 mm made by folding a long flap from leaf edge upwards to centre of leaf, held by 8 – 10 thick ropes of multiple strands of pinkish silk. A stage 3 pupal shelter made in captivity involved folding over a flap along the length of the leaf, upwards to the centre, with the basal end left open. A final instar caterpillar (88 / 24 (3 )) measured 20 mm when collected, but had probably already shrunk as it was ready to pupate; head 3.3 x 3.5 mm wide x high; round with flat face; ground colour beige, with black lines around six large white marks around edge of face, outside adfrontals, along clypeal sutures, broadly around posterior margin; adfrontals and clypeus pale. T 1 concolorous. Body light whitish green, similar to the colour of the leaf abaxial surface; slightly darker dorsal line; soon after collection the body turned red, dorsal line slightly darker, spiracles white, legs reddish, body white ventrally due to wax glands but exact position not recorded. This caterpillar died as a pupa. A penultimate instar caterpillar collected on the same occasion (88 / 24 (2 )) also measured 20 mm and was similar to form beta; head almost round with flat face; black with six round white spots around edge of face; oblique white mark at top of each adfrontal, above pale clypeus; a beige band from vertex over apex laterally to stemmata; T 1 and body as final instar above; legs concolorous. This caterpillar moulted to what appeared to be the final instar although smaller than the one above (head 2.9 x 3.0 mm), and was preserved in ethanol when it was killed by the emergence of larvae of an Apanteles (s. l.) sp, (Figure 74). An n- 2 instar caterpillar measured 11 mm; head approximately 2 x 2 mm; almost round with a flat face; black, with six white spots in a ring around the face, another on clypeus. Body as the two instars above. This caterpillar moulted to a penultimate instar caterpillar similar to that described above, with a head measuring 2.4 x 2.6 mm wide x high. It died in this instar and was preserved in ethanol. Platylesches moritili form delta caterpillar In this form the dark colouring of the face is replaced with a medium brown; the white spots are slightly more extensive than those of form gamma, so that the gaps between them are now slightly diffuse brown lines; the adfrontals are entirely pale yellow-brown, with the adjacent sutures brown; the frons is completely white; the lateral band from vertex to mouthparts is pale brown (Figures 72.8 – 10). This is the form that Dollman (unpublished) found and painted in Zambia early last century. TCEC has found this form at Mufindi, Tanzania, in highland Brachystegia woodland at 1830 m (Figure 72.8), and at Mutinondo, Zambia (Figure 72.9). This is also the form illustrated by Woodhall (1994) and Henning et al. (1997) as the final instar caterpillar of Pl. moritili, and probably the same as the fully mature, red caterpillar described and illustrated by Coetzer (2006), misidentified as Pl. robustus (A. Coetzer pers. comm. 2010). Pupa It is possible that careful documentation of the pupae will also support the division of caterpillars into forms. However, before making progress with this, it will be necessary to document and understand the colour changes that occur as the pupa develops and matures. Pupae associated with the four forms of caterpillar are shown in Figure 76. The Pl. moritili pupa illustrated by Henning et al. (1997) associated with a form delta caterpillar is similar to those shown for forms alpha, gamma and delta. The pupa shown for form beta (Figure 76.2) has the head and dorsal parts of the thorax and abdomen brown, but it is not clear that this difference is significant, rather than the result of being photographed at a later stage in development. The pupa of form gamma (88 / 24) from Zimbabwe is shown in Figure 77. It was formed within a leaf roll, in a thin but tough silk cocoon. In shape, rounded, with no protuberances, except the T 1 spiracle slightly protuberant; the proboscis sheath extends 2.2 mm beyond the arcuate tip of the fore wings. The cuticle was translucent, so the colouring will vary during development, recently formed, this pupa was dull white, the abdomen yellowish; frontally, a dull black arc, the arms angled ventrally; diffuse brown stripe down eye; spiracle T 1 brown; thorax and abdomen with scattered pale setae, those on head and T 1 shorter, erect; those on T 2 – 3 longer curved anteriorly; those on abdomen shorter, erect, straight, angled posteriorly. Natural enemies A mature caterpillar of form gamma collected at Mukuvisi Woodland, Harare (88 / 24 (2 )) was parasitised by a gregarious Apanteles (s. l.) sp. (Figure 74). The larvae of this parasitoid spun their cocoons in an elongate white mass adjacent to the host cadavar, with the cocoons orientating along the length of the mass. Ten female and seven male adults were obtained, and have been deposited in the BMNH. Discussion It appears that moritili may be a complex of several species with very similar adults, but with differing caterpillars, and perhaps differing pupae and habitat preferences. The alternative explanation is that Pl. moritili is a single species, but has a variety of distinct caterpillar forms and occurs in diverse habitats. We believe this is unlikely, given that the larvae remain hidden in their shelters during the hours of daylight, so that there would be little selective advantage in having a variety of forms. Another possibility might be that different populations have extra instars in response to environmental conditions and become progressively paler in their head markings (moving from alpha to delta), without becoming much larger. More rearing and detailed observations on the consecutive instars would be needed to assess this, but we are inclined to discount this possibility, particularly for those species that make tube shelters, which complete their development rapidly to take advantage of flush leaf growth. T. B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2012) has not noted any significant differences in genitalia of this ‘ species’ from all over Africa, but has not yet purposively compared the various forms from localities where they are sympatric. Documented individual rearing of series from a variety of localities and habitats, complemented with the use of molecular methods, should resolve this interesting case.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFFBFFA69BFDF88DFC21B917.taxon	discussion	Although this species was described from Natal (Hewitson 1877) and Evans (1937) only recorded specimens from South Africa, it is now known also from Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique (Pringle et al. 1994, Ackery et al. 1995, Heath et al. 2002) and north Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo (coll. Ducarme; T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2012) .. It is more widespread than Pl. ayresii, but also feeds on both Parinari spp. We note however, a suggestion by M. C. Williams (pers. comm. 2012) that Pl. neba may represent a complex of forms or species, similar to that we have recognised above for Pl. moritili, with differing caterpillar forms. Food plants Pringle et al. (1994) give the food plant as Pa. curatellifolia, whereas Henning et al. (1997) and Woodhall (2005) give it as Pa. capensis. TCEC has collected it from Pa. capensis, and in captivity it feeds on Pa. curatellifolia. Life history The caterpillars of this species make tube shelters. TCEC found two caterpillar forms, one with a pale brown or reddish brown head (Figure 79.1 – 4), the other with a black head (Figure 79.5 – 6). Pupae have not been field collected and this species probably pupates in leaf litter, as suspected for other tube shelter makers. The early stages documented by TCEC do not match those of Pl. neba described and illustrated with photographs by Henning et al. (1997) from Pa. capensis (note the legends for their photographs of the second and fifth instar caterpillars have been transposed). The first two instars are green with a black head, the third instar intermediate, and the fourth and fifth instars have the ‘ head pale tan with creamy-white spots on front, outlined with brown’. The pupa, as they point out is ‘ similar to that of Pl. moritili but with more pronounced dark lines along the wing cases and a blackish-brown head and thorax’. The first leaf shelter is a tube, but the second and third are made by pulling two, then three, leaves together. Pupation was in the final leaf shelter. This life history seems closest to that of Pl. moritili form delta treated above, and we suggest the life history illustrated by Henning et al. (1997) may actually represent a taxon that is part of the Pl. moritili complex.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFF8FFA69BFDFC3BFBD4BF0D.taxon	discussion	In 1989, S. E. Woodhall reared this species from Pa. curatellifolia in Venda (now part of Limpopo Province in the far north of South Africa) (Woodhall 1994). This food plant record is repeated in Pringle et al. (1994), Henning et al. (1997), Woodhall (2005) and Larsen (2005). Woodhall (1994) notes that ‘ the larvae inhabited leaf shelters in which the leaf was cut at either end of the shelter and with the edge of the leaf pulled across to touch the leaf surface. The joint was closed by means of many very fine, short, brown silk threads, concealing the larva. Inside the shelter, the larva had spun a bed of strong struts of white silk, on which it rested. ’ Woodhall (1994) and Henning et al. (1997) illustrate the penultimate and final instar caterpillars and the pupa. The final instar caterpillar superficially resembles Pl. moritili forms alpha or beta.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFF8FFA69BFDFC3BFBD4BF0D.taxon	description	TCEC has also reared Pl. picinini from Pa. curatellifolia occasionally from Mulanje, Malawi. The caterpillar is a tube maker, and was not distinguished from the caterpillars of Pl. moritili.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFF9FFA89BFDFA41FED2B8C4.taxon	description	Coetzer (2006) presents notes on the early stages of Pl. robustus, but this was based on a misidentification of Pl. moritili (A. Coetzer pers. comm. 2010). Food plants Woodhall (2005) suggested the food plant is probably Pa. curatellifolia, and this is the food plant upon which TCEC found this species in Zambia and elsewhere. Life history Congdon et al. (2008) describe the life history. In the early instars, Pl. robustus makes shelters similar to those of Pl. shona (below). However, in the final instar, Pl. robustus makes a chamber leaf shelter (Figure 80) by securing the cut section of leaf to the leaf below, and then bringing a part of the cut leaf round to block off the front of the chamber. It then makes a circular silk-lined entrance hole, and creates an external tunnel of silk which curves round, blocking the line of sight to the inside of the chamber (Figure 80). They make both left and right handed tunnels, contrary to the earlier suggestion that only right handed tunnels are made (Congdon et al. 2008). The chamber is lined with a generous layer of tough brownish silk, making it waterproof, if not bird-proof. Chambers are found among mature foliage well above the ground. The fully fed larva enters diapause for several months in the chamber before pupating, and final instar larvae from Mutinondo in Zambia, collected in November, did not pupate until May and June the following year, indicating there is probably just one generation a year. Congdon et al. (2008) suggested that the caterpillar (Figure 81) is better able to defend itself against parasites and predators than a pupa would be. The pupa of this species (Figure 82) is dark brown with paler bands on the abdominal segments.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFF6FFA89BFDFACAFB15BDCE.taxon	description	Food plants TCEC found this species on Pa. curatellifolia in Zambia. Life history The larvae make silk lined chambers in mature foliage, emerging at night to feed. The shelter is similar in construction to that of Pl. robustus, but is smaller and lacks the external curved tunnel of silk. It is usually found well above the ground. The final instar Pl. shona are similar to those of the penultimate instar of Pl. robustus. Shelters of young Pl. shona and Pl. langa could be confused, except that those of Pl. langa are near the ground, usually adjacent to the characteristic eating pattern of the first and second instars (Figure 68.1).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
0385994AFFF7FFAC9BFDF9A0FD71BBC8.taxon	description	Food plants Larsen’s (1991) suggestion that the food plants were ‘ almost certainly various grasses’ is incorrect. Woodhall (1994) reports rearing this species on Pa. curatellifolia at Venda, South Africa, in 1989 and provides notes on the early stages, a sketch of the pupal leaf shelter and a photograph of the final instar caterpillar (also shown in Henning et al. 1997). The food plant record is repeated in Pringle et al. (1994), Henning et al. (1997) and Woodhall (2005). Woodhall’s observations are at variance with those of TCEC who reared this species on Pa. curatellifolia at Mufindi, Tanzania, which are presented below. Life history Congdon et al. (2008) described the life history. The egg is laid on a small plant or a branch near ground level. The larva cuts and folds a leaf downwards. It secures the cut portion to the underside of the leaf and then folds a portion round at the front. The chamber is completed by making a round hole at the front and lining it with silk (Figure 84). Like tubes shelters, these can be seen quite easily by looking at the underside of a branch, where the dark green folded portion stands out in contrast to the pale undersides of the leaves. Only very occasionally will a Pl. tina larva secure the chamber to a second, lower leaf. This species is unusual in having a green larva, and the thoracic segments of the pupa are also greenish. The feeding pattern results in characteristically ragged edges to mature leaves. Woodhall (1994) reports the final instar caterpillar of Pl. tina as 10 mm long, when found on young foliage on coppice growth of Pa. curatellifolia; body leaf-green, head brown with white-cream patched outlines with darker brown in a radial pattern as in Pl. moritili. The leaf-shelters were constructed by taking a whole young leaf and folding it in two up the mid-rib fixing the edges together with closely spaced short silk strands. The pupa is 10 mm long, dull cream coloured, adult appendages picked out in dark brown. Pupation inside thin silk cocoons within the leaf shelter lasted about three months. This is not the same caterpillar or pupa as that of Pl. tina reared by TCEC (Figures 85 – 86). Furthermore, TCEC found caterpillars of Pl. tina on mature growth not on coppice growth, and they made chamber shelters rather than tube shelters. Either Pl. neba comprises more than one form based on the early stages, or the reared material has been misidentified in one (or both) cases. As we are confident of the identity of TCEC’s reared material (Figure 87), and Woodhall (1994) refers to the similarity of the caterpillar to Pl. moritili, could it be that the species reared by Woodhall (1994) is a small taxon in the Pl. moritili complex, as we have suggested above for the Pl. neba reported by Henning et al. (1997).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, Colin E. (2013): Observations on the Biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 5. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Dicotyledon Feeders. Zootaxa 3724 (1): 1-85, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3724.1.1
