taxonID	type	description	language	source
B31987BBFFD6FFF3E0D052BB8E40FB19.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body brown or grayish brown, belly transparent, digestive tract visible; caudal musculature creamy colored and tail fins translucent; both caudal musculature and fins covered with melanophores forming many brown or grayish brown blotches. In life, dorsum grayish brown, lateral of the body with chromatophores forming small silvery spots, venter translucent; caudal musculature pale brown with melanophores forming blotches, tail fins translucent (Fig. 4 D). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (1) from Stage 32 onwards. At Stage 27 LTRF ranges from 1 / 2 to 2 / 2 to 2 (2) / 3 (1). Metamorphs. Dorsum gray to black with a light brown dorsolateral line barely reaching the end of the body; belly with irregular dark markings; orange patch on the outside of the thigh and a yellow patch on the base of the anterior arm (Fig. 4 E). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in the forest floor between fallen leaves. Clutches contain from 8 to 17 pigmented eggs (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles at Stage 27 are carried on the back of the males (Lima et al. 2012) and rarely females (Ringler et al. 2015) to small, temporary, isolated or streamside ponds and puddles in terra-firme forests and forest edge (this study). Larvae are found in all months of the year. Larvae are benthic and camouflaged against the substrate. Larvae consume detritus (Weygoldt 1980) and anuran eggs (Magnusson & Hero 1991). In experiments larvae were found to be preyed upon by dragonfly larvae and fish (Gascon 1992 a).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFD6FFF3E0D052BB8E40FB19.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of A. femoralis were previously described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, by Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia, Brazil and by Duellman (2005) from Peru. Tadpoles described herein differ from those described by Duellman (1978) by presenting LTRF 2 (2) / 3; and from those described by Duellman (2005) by presenting dorsal fin originating on the tail and a rounded tail tip (although Fig. 13.2 E in Duellman 2005 shows a tadpole with a pointed tail tip). There are no morphological differences between tadpoles herein characterized and those from Central Amazonia, Brazil, illustrated in Hero (1990).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFD9FFF1E0D056DF898CFE29.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body light brown to brown, venter paler, belly translucent; caudal musculature light brown, tail fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins covered with melanophores forming many irregular brown blotches. In life, dorsum grayish brown, lateral of the body mottled, venter translucent; caudal musculature pale brown, tail fins translucent, both with melanophores forming irregular blotches (Fig. 5 D). Variation. LTRF ranges between 2 (2) / 3 (less frequent) and 2 (2) / 3 (1) (more frequent) after Stage 27. Metamorphs. Similar to adults. Body brown with two distinct, dark dorsolateral stripes starting in the snout, passing through eyes and continuing towards end of body; limbs brown; venter creamy-colored (Fig. 5 E). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in the forest floor in rolled or doubled fallen leaves. Clutches contain from 6 to 14 eggs (Juncá 1998; Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are carried on the back of the males to small, temporary, isolated or streamside ponds and puddles in terra-firme forests and forest edge (Juncá 1998; Lima et al. 2012; this study). Larvae are found in all months of the year. Ability to colonize very small water bodies is indicated by the observation of tadpoles of A. sumtuosus on fallen palm leaves or bucket lids filled with rainwater only a few millimeters deep (this study). Larvae are benthic and camouflaged against the substrate. Tadpoles of A. sumtuosus are prey to tadpoles of Leptodactylus rhodomystax (Rodrigues et al. 2007) and to Pipa arrabali (Buchacher 1993). In experiments larvae were found to consume few anuran eggs and to be preyed upon by dragonfly larvae and fish (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFD9FFF1E0D056DF898CFE29.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of A. sumtuosus described from Central Amazonia, State of Amazônia (Hero 1990) differ from those herein characterized only by the spiracle opening located on the medial third of the body. Those described from Reserva Biológica do Rio Trombetas, State of Pará by Simıes & Lima (2012) differ from those herein by presenting marginal papillae changing in shape from pyramidal laterally to round posteriorly, and P 3 slightly shorter. Genus Anomaloglossus. Only one species of Anomaloglossus is found in Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDBFFF0E0D0500F898CFD11.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body and tail light brown to brown, venter paler, digestive tract not visible; tail fins translucent; very conspicuous blood vessel irrigation of cream-colored belly visible dorsally, laterally and ventrally in tadpoles around Stages 31 and 32. Metamorphs. Dorsum light brown; dark brown stripes from snout to posterior region of the eyes; belly whitish (Lima et al. 2012). Natural history. Three to six pigmented eggs are deposited in the terra-firme forest floor in rolled or doubled fallen leaves (Juncá 1998). Tadpoles are endotrophic and complete development in the nest (Juncá 1998). Eggs and / or larvae of A. stepheni are prey to spiders, cockroaches, and the lizards Leposoma guianense and Chatogekko amazonicus (Juncá 1996).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDBFFF0E0D0500F898CFD11.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles previously described from Central Amazonia by Juncá et al. (1994) differ from those herein characterized by presenting spiracle sinistral and vent tube medial, although an actual aperture could not be seen (Juncá et al. 1994). BUFONIDAE. Tadpoles of the bufonid species occurring in Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: tadpoles and metamorphs small; body oval or ovoid in dorsal view and globular / depressed in lateral view; body length similar to tail length; spiracle sinistral; tail fins of moderate height; dorsal fin convex; ventral fin parallel or convex, never extending onto body; tail tip rounded; vent tube medial, with a medial opening; oral disc with one row of marginal papillae, with wide dorsal and ventral gaps (in all species but Atelopus, that presents a continuous marginal papillae in anterior labium and a ventral gap); LTRF 2 / 3. Genus Amazophrynella. Only one species of Amazophrynella is found in Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDAFFF7E0D050D78EDAFB7C.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body and caudal musculature light brown, fins translucent with melanophores forming a reticulate pattern. In life, body light brown with individual brown chromatophores to dark brown, caudal musculature pale brown, tail fins translucent. Variation. LTRF variable at Stage 25 (1 / 2, 2 / 0, 2 / 1 or 2 / 3) (Menin et al. 2014). After Stage 26, LTRF consistently 2 / 3. Metamorphs. Dorsum dark brown; chest and limbs light brown; venter whitish-cream. Natural history. Eggs are laid on roots above lentic water as two gelatinous strings totaling 70 to 250 eggs (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are found in small (usually <2 m 2) streamside ponds formed by rainfall or by stream flooding in terra-firme forests (Menin et al. 2014). Tadpoles are found in most months of the year. Larvae are benthic and camouflaged against the substrate (this study). Larvae are exotrophic. In experiments tadpoles were found to be preyed upon by dragonfly larvae and fish (Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDAFFF7E0D050D78EDAFB7C.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia drawn by Hero (1990; Plate 4) and those described by Menin et al. (2014) had no noticeable morphological variation relative to the ones herein characterized, except by the spiracle posteroventrally directed in Hero (1990). Genus Atelopus. Only one species of Atelopus is found in Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDDFFF5E0D056E38EACFEC1.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body and caudal musculature brown, with dark brown large spots on dorsum, flanks and caudal musculature; fins translucent. In life, tadpole grayish brown with creamy white large spots; dorsum coppery brown; tail fins translucent. Natural history. Eggs not observed in Central Amazonia. Eggs of related A. spumarius from Ecuador are moderately large, unpigmented, and laid in water in small jelly strings (Duellman & Lynch 1969). Tadpoles in Central Amazonia are found in fast-flowing terra-firme forest streams, 1.5 to 4 m wide and up to 1 m deep, with a substratum consisting of sand, gravel, stones and leaf-litter. Tadpoles are benthic and adhere to the substratum by means of the abdominal disc.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDDFFF5E0D056E38EACFEC1.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia were described as Atelopus pulcher by Gascon (1989 a). They differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes anteriorly directed, spiracle posteriorly directed (according to Fig. 1, pg. 236), caudal musculature extending until the tail tip, and abdominal disc semicircular in shape. Genus Rhinella. Tadpoles of genus Rhinella found in Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: body oval in dorsal view and depressed in lateral view; body length equals one half of the total length; tail tip rounded; oral disc anteroventrally positioned and directed, emarginate, with one row of marginal papillae except for very wide dorsal and ventral gaps; LTRF 2 (2) / 3.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDFFFF4E0D053678CBEFC49.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, dorsum, flanks of body and dorsal half to 2 / 3 of the caudal musculature dark brown to black; ventral half to 1 / 3 of the caudal musculature unpigmented; chest dark grey, venter black, tail fins transparent. In life, body black, dorsal half to 2 / 3 of the caudal musculature black, venter black, ventral half to 1 / 3 of caudal musculature unpigmented, tail fins tansparent. Natural history. Pigmented eggs are deposited in shallow water as two gelatinous strings with 4,000 to 10,000 eggs (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are found in the dry season in temporary and permanent ponds and lakes in terrafirme forest edge, deforested land and várzea and igapó floodplains. Tadpoles are unpalatable to fish and form ameboid, loosely aggregated schools (Wassersug 1973). The black color is presumably aposematic. Tadpoles exhibit necrophagy. Tadpoles are preyed upon by the snake Helicops angulatus (Kaefer & Montanarin 2011).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDFFFF4E0D053678CBEFC49.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of R. marina were previously described by Savage (1960) from Panamá, Kenny (1969) from Trinidad and Tobago, Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia, Brazil, Rada de Martinez (1990) from Venezuela, Ford & Scott (1996) from Mexico, Duelman (2005) from Peru, and Lynch (2006) from Colombia. As expected for such wide geographic range, several chacteristics were found to vary between the tadpoles herein characterized, and those described from other locations. These are dorsal fin originating on the tail, nostrils with a small medial projection of the rim, spiracle posteriorly directed, and submarginal papillae scattered lateroanteriorly in tadpoles from Trinidad (Fig. 29 in Kenny 1969) and Colombia (Fig. 18 in Lynch 2006), absent in those from Peru (Duellman 2005); tail tip pointed in tadpoles from Panamá (Savage 1960); P 2 shorter than P 1 and, according to Figs. 1 and 2 snout sloped, and biseriate marginal papillae in tadpoles from Mexico (Savage 1960); body ovoid in tadpoles from Ecuador (Duellman 1978) and from Peru (Duellman 2005); LTRF 2 (2) / 3 [1] in tadpoles from Venezuela (Rada de Martinez 1990); marginal papillae uniseriate, but frequently biseriate posteriorly in tadpoles from Mexico (Ford & Scott 1996); posterior sheath broadly V-shaped and ventral fin convex in tadpoles from Peru (Duellman 2005).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDEFFF4E0D051908E4AF824.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body greyish-brown; venter and sides of body transparent; caudal musculature light gray, upper half of caudal musculature grey, lower half unpigmented; fins transparent. In life, body and caudal musculature light brown (sand-coloured), lateroventral portion of caudal musculature without pigmentation, laterodorsal portion with melanophores giving a weak black colouration; in the dorsal portion there are wide spots formed by accumulation of golden chromatophores that give the impression of transversal stripes in dorsal view; tail fins transparent. Metamorphs. Dorsum dirty brown, venter translucid creamy-brown, limbs light brown, legs with discrete light transversal stripes. Natural history. Pigmented eggs are laid in shallow water as two gelatinous strings. One clutch contained 1,557 eggs. A dissected female contained 3,142 ovarian eggs. Tadpoles are found in small (<26 m 2) and shallow (<10 cm) temporary ponds and puddles with clayish or sandy bottom, with or without leaf-litter, twigs and branches (Silva et al. 2017). In Central Amazonia the species is found during the rainy season in terra-firme forest edge and deforested land. In the igapó flooded forests of eastern Amazonia R. merianae is found to breed frequently in lakes and rivers (Magnusson & Windle 1988; Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1999).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFDEFFF4E0D051908E4AF824.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia previously described by Silva et al. (2017) had no noticeable morphological variation relative to the ones herein characterized. Hero (1990) illustrated these tadpoles as Bufo granulosus (Plate 1) from the same region, and they differ from those herein characterized and from those described by Silva et al. (2017) by the larger spiracle and the wider tail tip.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE1FFCAE0D0575A890DF948.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body and tail light brown with translucent fins; melanophores distributed in dorsal region of the body and in the upper half of caudal musculature; melanophores absent in ventral surface of the body and ventral fin (Menin et al. 2006). In life, body and caudal musculature light brown with chromatophores black, tail fins translucent. Metamorphs. Light brown with small dots on dorsum, limbs with discrete stripes, skin of venter light brown and translucent. Natural history. Eggs are deposited as gelatinous strings containing 439 to 473 eggs (Menin et al. 2006). Tadpoles are found in the rainy season in terra-firme forests in temporary streamside puddles as small as 1 m 2 (and 20 cm deep).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE1FFCAE0D0575A890DF948.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia described by Menin et al. (2006) differ from those herein characterized by presenting body depressed in lateral view and oval in dorsal view, spiracular opening on the posterior third of the body and posteroventrally directed, and ventral fin slightly arched. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia (Plate 3) illustrated by Hero (1990) as Bufo cf. typhonius differ from those herein characterized by presenting body oval in dorsal view, and spiracle posteroventrally directed. CENTROLENIDAE Genus Vitreorana. Only one species of Vitreorana is found in Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE0FFC8E0D054918968FD2D.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, dorsum and caudal musculature from pinkish to light brown with dark melanophores, venter whitish, tail fins translucent. In life, because of the absence of pigment, tadpoles present dorsum reddish brown, since the underlying blood vessels are unmasked; venter whitish, tail muscle reddish and tail fins transparent (Menin et al. 2009 a). Variation. LTRF 0 / 0 or 0 / 1 at Stage 25. Natural history. Eggs are laid on the upper or underside surfaces of leaves overhanging (from 0.5 to 1 m above water surface) streams in terra-firme forests (Menin et al. 2009 a; Lima et al. 2012). Clutches contain from 12 to 18 pale green eggs distributed as a single layer (mean 16 eggs; N = 4; Fig. 12 D, E). Upon hatching tadpoles fall in the water and assume their typical fossorial habits: tadpoles live burrowed in leaf mats and gravel, using its long and strong muscular tail with shallow fins especially for digging (Menin et al. 2009 a). Tadpoles at Stage 25 hatched in the laboratory still had a relatively undifferentiated gut, a cream-colored abdomen and a very small opening of the vent tube which may be suggestive of reliance on endotrophy at this stage. Larvae are found in all months of the year. Eggs are preyed upon by phorid fly larvae (H ̂ dl 1993). In experiments tadpoles were found to be preyed upon by fish (Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE0FFC8E0D054918968FD2D.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990; Plate 5) and described by Menin et al. (2009) as Vitreorana oyampiensis, and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting body elongate rectangular in dorsal view and spiracle posteriorly directed. CERATOPHRYIDAE Genus Ceratophrys. Only one species of Ceratophrys is found in Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE2FFCFE0D051338C0CF9DE.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body and caudal musculature light brown, paler ventrally; fins translucent. Tadpoles after Stage 40 already possess the characteristic dark dorsolateral and interocular bars found in the adults. Tadpoles after Stage 42 start to develop the characteristic palpebral appendages found in the adults. In life, body transparent olive with a silver venter, tail transparent olive (Hero 1990). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches of C. cornuta from Peru contain 1,640 to 2,270 pigmented eggs (Aichinger 1992; Duellman 2005). Eggs are deposited in ponds filled with rainwater in terra-firme forests (Lima et al. 2012).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE2FFCFE0D051338C0CF9DE.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were previously characterized by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, and Duellman (2005) and Duellman & Lizana (1994) from Peru. Tadpoles from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting LRTF 9 (7 - 9) / 9 (1 - 3) (Duellman 1978), and those from Peru by presenting LTRF 13 / 8 (Duellman 2005) and l 3 (6) / 8 (2) (Duellman & Lizana 1994). Tadpoles from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting vent tube dextral and tail tip pointed (Duellman 1978), which is rounded in tadpoles from Peru (Duellman 2005). Tadpoles from Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout bluntly rounded in dorsal view, spiracle posteriorly directed, vent tube dextral, dorsal fin originating at the body-tail junction, marginal papillae elongately conical and tail tip pointed (according to Fig. 5 in Duellman & Lizana 1994). Tadpoles from Central Amazonia illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF 6 - 9 (7 - 9) / 6 - 9 (1 - 3) and rounded tail tip. DENDROBATIDAE Genus Ameerega. Two are the species of Ameerega in Central Amazonia. The only species with collected tadpoles is A. hahneli.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE5FFCDE0D054028CC5FE71.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative, body dark brown; caudal musculature light brown; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with innumerous small dark brown spots. Variation. Number of marginal papillae varied from 10 – 14 at Stage 25 to 16 at Stage 38 (Menin et al. 2017). Variations in ventral coloration were observed at all stages, revealing or concealing the digestive tract (Menin et al. 2017). Natural history. Eggs are deposited either in leaves on the ground or in large litter-trap leaves of small palms, where males frequently call to attract females (WH pers. obs.). One egg clutch contained eight eggs (Haddad & Martins 1994). Tadpoles are carried on the dorsum of the male (Haddad & Martins 1994) to small streamside temporary puddles in terra-firme forests. Puddles range from 16 cm 2 to 0.34 m ² in area, and from 2 to 16 cm in depth (Menin et al. 2017).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE5FFCDE0D054028CC5FE71.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles were described by Haddad & Martins (1994) from Presidente Figueiredo, Central Amazonia, and by Duellman (2005) from Peru. Tadpoles at Stage 25 from Presidente Figueiredo differ from those herein characterized by presenting body highly depressed (body width nearly two times body depth), eyes and nostrils dorsolaterally positioned and directed, labial teeth not yet keratinized, posterior jaw sheath U-shaped (Haddad & Martins 1994). The description of tadpoles from Peru is too short and there is not a drawing, but Duellman (2005) mentions that these tadpoles are similar to those described by Haddad & Martins (1994). HYLIDAE. Tadpoles of the hylid species occurring in Central Amazonia belong to nine genera, all of them with free-swimming tadpoles. The morphology of these genera varies considerably. Genus Boana. Tadpoles of genus Boana found in Central Amazonia share the following morphological characteristics: moderate to large size; body ovoid or elongate oval in dorsal view and depressed in lateral view; spiracle sinistral, short and wide; dorsal fin of moderate height, ventral fin generally shallow; vent tube medial with a dextral opening; oral disc anteroventral or ventral; marginal papillae generally uniseriate (biseriate in B. boans); LTRF variations of 2 / 3, 2 / 4 and 3 / 5.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE7FFCDE0D053F68EB9F800.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and sides from grayish to light brown with a few scattered melanophores to marbled of brown, cream and pigmentless with scattered dark brown spots; venter transparent without pigmentation except for small scattered leucophores; tail fins translucent cream with diffuse melanophores. Aggregation of melanophores in the dorsal portion of the tail musculature often gives the impression that the tail musculature has transversal bars in dorsal view. In life tadpole brown, with a combination of light brown and dark brown spots over the dorsal portions of body and tail; tail fin transparent; aggregation of melanophores in the dorsal portion of the tail musculature gives the impression that the tail musculature has transversal bars in dorsal view. Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3, 2 (2) / 4 or 2 (2) / 4 (1) between Stages 25 and 30. Metamorphs. Dorsum yellowish brown, venter from light beige to cream; black dots on dorsum and head. Natural history. Eggs are deposited as a gelatinous film on the surface of water-filled basins constructed by the males, or natural depressions, at the margin of streams in terra-firme forest, forest edge and deforested land (Magnusson et al. 1999; Lima et al. 2012; this study). Clutches contain from 1,300 to 3,000 pigmented eggs (Lima et al. 2012). Larvae are found in most months of the year. Larvae are benthic and camouflaged against the substrate; when disturbed swim fast and stop suddenly, behavior which probably reinforces the effectiveness of camouflage (this study). In experiment eggs were found to be avoided by fish but consumed by dytiscid beetles, dragonflies and oophagous tadpoles; B. boans tadpoles are themselves moderately oophagous (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE7FFCDE0D053F68EB9F800.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles were described by Duellman (1970, 1978, 2005) from Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, respectively, and by Lynch (2006) from Colombia. Tadpoles from Colombia, characterized by Duellman (1970) and those from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting oral disc ventral, laterally emarginate, a uniseriate row of marginal papillae, LTRF 2 (2) / 4, spiracle opening just below the midline of the body, and dextral vent tube. Tadpoles from Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting dorsal fin originating on the tail, vent tube dextral, and tail tip acutely rounded, oral disc laterally emarginate, uniseriate row of marginal papillae except on the lateral side of oral disc where it is biseriate, submarginal papillae absent and LTRF 2 (2) / 4 [the specimen depicted by Duellman shows LTRF 2 (1,2) / 4 (1) and submarginal papillae present laterally and much larger than the marginal papillae]. Duellman (2005) also commented about a variation in LTRF, since P 2 may be interrupted, and P 4 may be fragmented. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia illustrated by Hero (1990) present LTRF 2 (2) / 3 - 4 (1). No morphological differences were found between tadpoles herein characterized and those from Colombia described by Lynch (2006) and illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE6FFC3E0D0573D8E06FF09.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature light brown; venter and fins translucent; vertical brown marks on the caudal musculature and fins. Tadpoles of B. calcarata from Peru have a dark brown dorsum with faint tan mottling and a tan interorbital bar; tail yellowish tan with vertical brown bars (Duellman 2005). Natural history. Eggs not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches of B. calcarata from Ecuador contain from 1,060 to 1,250 pigmented eggs deposited as a surface film (Duellman 1978, 2005); tadpoles in streamside ponds in terra-firme forests.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE6FFC3E0D0573D8E06FF09.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpole accounts presented by Wild (1992) from Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting few submarginal papillae laterally at oral disc. Tadpoles from Ecuador described by Duellman (1978) and from Peru by Duellman (2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view, spiracle long and free from body, and jaw sheaths slender.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE9FFC1E0D0575C8F40FE55.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum greenish brown with scattered rounded white chromatophores; caudal musculature light brown; fins translucent. In life body transparent olive brown with scattered white cromathopores; tail transparent with scattered white chromatophores (Fig. 17 D) (Hero 1990). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3, 2 (2) / 3 (1), 2 (2) / 3 (1,2), or 2 (1,2) / 3 (1) at Stages 25 and 26. Metamorphs. In preservative unpigmented; skin translucent and musculature light cream; many white chromatophores on dorsum and sides and, to a lesser extent, venter; venter translucent; diffuse spots between eyes (Fig. 17 E). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in clumps in streamside ponds in terra-firme forests. Clutches contain from 165 to 298 pigmented eggs (Lima et al. 2012; Telles et al. 2013). Tadpoles are found in streamside ponds and less frequently in streams in terra-firme forests. Tadpoles are found in most months of the year. In experiments tadpoles were found to be moderately oophagous and to be preyed upon by fish (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFE9FFC1E0D0575C8F40FE55.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles were described as Hyla granosa by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, Duellman (2005) from Peru and by Mijares-Urrutia (1993) from southeastern Venezuela, and illustrated by Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia. Tadpoles from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid, spiracle lateroventral and posterodorsally directed, oral disc anteroventral and laterally emarginate, with a dorsal gap on marginal papillae, and LTRF 1 (1) / 2. According to Mijares-Urrutia (1993) this LRTF may be due to the early developmental stage (Stage 25) described by Duellman (1978). Tadpoles from Central Amazonia (Hero 1990; Plate 10) present LTRF 2 (1,2) / 3 - 4 (1) [2] with a much shorter ventral gap than the tadpoles herein characterized. Tadpoles from Venezuela (Mijares-Urrutia 1993) differ from those herein characterized by presenting marginal papillae biseriate with only a dorsal gap, LTRF 2 (2) / 4 (1), and oral disc laterally emarginate. Tadpoles from Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid, nostrils without projection on marginal rim (“ narial papillae ” in Duellman 2005), spiracle posterodosally directed, dorsal fin originating on caudal musculature, marginal papillae irregularly biseriate posteriorly, and LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (1).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEBFFC0E0D0539A8ECBFD10.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body light brown with small dots on the dorsum; caudal musculature light brown with creamy white marks; fins translucent with dark brown marks. Tadpoles of B. fasciata from Peru have dorsum and sides of the body greenish gray, with a dark brown stripe extending from the dorsolateral edge of the oral disc to the orbit; anterior part of the venter dark brown and posterior part pale tan; caudal musculature and fins pale yellow with distinct, irregular, vertical black marks; iris pale yellow (Duellman 2005). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females of B. fasciata from Peru contain from 650 to 1,510 pigmented ovarian eggs (Aichinger 1992; Duellman 2005). Eggs are deposited as a surface film on the water (Duellman 2005). Tadpoles found in streamside ponds in terra-firme forests and in várzea floodplains.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEBFFC0E0D0539A8ECBFD10.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Peru were described by Wild (1992) and by Duellman (2005). They differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes positioned and directed dorsolaterally, ventral fin parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tail, oral disc not emarginate (although Fig. 2 shows an oral disc ventrally emarginate; Wild 1992), with or without a narrow medial gap on posterior labium, submarginal papillae usually on posterior labium and scattered laterally, sometimes forming a broken row; LTRF 2 (1 - 2) / 3 [1] in tadpoles characterized by Wild (1992) and 2 (2) / 3 in those characterized by Duellman (2005). However, it is important to consider that Wild (1992) commented about some variation in LTRF, with could present an incomplete P 4.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEAFFC7E0D050D68E61FD59.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and tail dark brown; venter nearly transparent with gut perfectly visible; tail musculature cream-colored; fins opaque grey, translucent to transparent. In life body and tail black; fins dull gray. Tadpoles at Stage 25 have transparent ventral skin and tail fins; ventral skin and tail fins translucent between Stages 26 and 29; fins opaque dark grey after Stage 29, gut visible through the ventral skin. Variation. LTRF 1 / 3 (1), 2 (2) / 3, or 2 (2) / 3 (1) at Stage 25. Metamorphs. Body dark grey to black; limbs dark brown (Fig. 19 D). Natural history. Eggs and tadpoles are found in streams, streamside ponds and lakes in terra-firme forest, forest edge and várzea floodplains. Clutches contain 2,500 (Lima et al. 2012) or 2.979 eggs (this study) pigmented eggs. Tadpoles are found in all months of the year. Tadpoles form conspicuous size-structured, compact, nonpolarized schools containing up to 3,000 individuals; tadpoles move continuously from the periphery toward the middle of the school, presumably to lower individual predation risk; schooling behavior is observed throughout the entire premetamorphic development; schools with actively swimming tadpoles are observed both by day and night (Caldwell 1989). Tadpoles graze on periphyton and bob air in the water surface (this study). Development appears to be comparatively slow (this study) and tadpoles reach 90 + mm in total length (Caldwell 1989). Eggs are preyed upon by the turtle Platemys platycephala (Albertina Lima, pers. comm. in Hero, 1991). Tadpoles are preyed upon by the snake Helicops angulatus (Martins & Oliveira 1998) and parasitized by the parasitic crustacean Argulus (this study). In experiment eggs were found to be avoided by fish but consumed by dytiscid beetles and oophagous tadpoles; B. geographica tadpoles are themselves moderately oophagous (Magnusson & Hero 1991). Tadpoles are unpalatable to fish and the black coloration is presumably aposematic.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEAFFC7E0D050D68E61FD59.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Trinidad were described by Kenny (1969), from Ecuador by Duellman (1978), from Peru by Duellman (2005), from Bolivia by Schulze et al. (2015), and tadpoles from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990). LTRF 2 (2) / 3 is the only morphological difference between tadpoles from Trinidad and those herein characterized. Tadpoles from Ecuador and from Bolivia differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid. Those from Ecuador also differ from those herein characterized by presenting oral disc laterally emarginate, LTRF 2 (2) / 4, and dorsal fin not extending onto the body (Duellman 1978). Tadpoles characterized by Hero (1990) and Duellman (2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting LRTF 2 - 3 [1] [3] / 3 - 5 [1]. Moreover, those from Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a dorsal fin originating at the body-tail junction and those from Peru by presenting a dorsal fin originating on the tail (although Fig. 13.14 C shows a tadpole with dorsal fin originating at the body-tail junction), oral disc laterally emarginate, submarginal papillae absent, LTRF 2 (1) / 4, and tail tip pointed (Duellman 2005). Tadpoles from Bolivia (Schulze et al. 2015) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout oval in dorsal view, nostrils rounded, marginal papillae uniseriate anteriorly and irregularly biseriate laterally and posteriorly, lower jaw sheath U-shaped, LTRF 2 (2) / 4 (1), spiracle centripetal wall free from body in its second half, ventral fin parallel to longitudinal axis of tail. These tadpoles were characterized as Osteocephalus taurinus by Duellman & Lescure (1973), and they differ from those characterized herein just by dorsal fin originating on the tail-body junction.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEDFFC5E0D055BD8E83FE54.taxon	description	Snout rounded in dorsal and lateral views. Eyes medium-sized, dorsolaterally positioned and laterally directed. Nostrils small, oval, dorsolaterally positioned, near to eyes, with opening anterolaterally directed, with a small projection on the marginal rim. Oral disc (Fig. 20 C) anteroventral, ventrolaterally emarginate; marginal papillae conical, uniseriate, with a dorsal gap. Submarginal papillae absent. LTRF 2 (1,2) / 3 (1); A 1 and A 2 of the same length; P 2 slightly longer than P 1; P 3 slightly shorter than P 2. Jaw sheaths moderately wide, finely serrated; anterior jaw sheath arch-shaped, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. Spiracle single, sinistral, cylindrical, long and wide, posterodorsally directed, opening in the posterior third of the body, with the centripetal wall not fused to the body wall and longer than the external wall. Vent tube medial, fused to the ventral fin, with a dextral opening. Caudal musculature of moderate width; in lateral view gradually tapering to a pointed tip. Dorsal fin of moderate height and convex, originating at the tail-body junction; ventral fin shallow, convex. Tail tip pointed. Colour. In preservative dorsum light grayish brown with many black dots; caudal musculature creamy and fins translucent, both with irregular vertical bars; venter light whitish to beige; gut barely visible. Tadpoles of B. lanciformis from Ecuador have body dark brown above and laterally, and gray ventrally; with green lichenous markings; caudal musculature tan, fins transparent, both marked with vertical dark brown bars; iris dull reddish brown (Duellman 1978). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 (1) between Stages 28 and 30. Metamorphs. Metamorphs yellowish-brown with brown dorsolateral and middorsal longitudinal lines and scattered spots (Fig. 20 D). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches of B. lanciformis from Ecuador contain from 2,100 to 2,400 pigmented eggs (Crump 1974; Duellman 1978). Tadpoles are found in permanent ponds and lakes in forest edge and deforested land.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEDFFC5E0D055BD8E83FE54.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Ecuador described by Duellman (1978) and from Colombia by Lynch & SuárezMayorga (2011). Tadpoles from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view, spiracle posteriorly directed, oral disc laterally emarginate, LTRF 2 (2) / 3, and P 3 much shorter than other tooth row as the tadpoles from Colombia (Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga 2011).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEFFFC4E0D0539A8EDEFCC8.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature creamy; dorsum with dark dots; fins translucent. In life not observed, but tadpoles of B. punctata from Ecuador have body dark grey with black flecks; venter dark gray; tail olive green; iris pale bronze (Duellman 1978). Metamorphs. Metamorph green similar to adult. Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches of B. punctata from Ecuador contain 310 eggs (Crump 1974). Tadpoles are found in floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEFFFC4E0D0539A8EDEFCC8.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of B. punctata were first described by Kenny (1969) from Trinidad, and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting dorsal fin originating on the tail and LRTF 2 (2) / 3. These tadpoles were also characterized by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, Hoogmoed (1979) from Surinam and French Guiana, Duellman (2005) from Peru, Kolenc et al. (2008) from Chaco Province, Argentina, and by Schulze et al. (2015) from Bolivia. The characteristics that differentiate these tadpoles from those herein characterized are: eyes lateral, oral disc anteroventral and laterally emarginate, and LRTF 2 (2) / 3 (Duellman 1978); body ovoid in dorsal view, oral disc anteroventral with lateral emarginations, and LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (Duellman 2005); nostrils closer to eyes than to the tip of snout, row of marginal papillae single or biserially disposed in angular and infraangular regions, some submarginal papillae, LRTF 2 (2) / 4 (1), and P 4 located very close to papillae of posterior border of oral disc, with its labial teeth smaller than other ones (Kolenc et al. 2008); body ovoid in dorsal view, snout rounded to slightly tapered in lateral view, oral disc located and directed anteroventrally, oral disc emarginate laterally and slightly emarginate on posterior labium, marginal papillae irregularly aligned in a uniseriate row, papillae conical and long, few submarginal papillae present laterally, eyes positioned laterally, and nostrils positioned and directed anterodorsally (Schulze et al. 2015). The only morphological difference between tapoles from Surinam and French Guiana (Hoogmoed 1979) and those herein characterized is the body ovoid in dorsal view in the former.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEEFFC4E0D0516E8E4FF864.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body reddish brown, with small dark dots on the dorsum; caudal musculature light brown; fins translucent light brown; small irregular marks on the margin of dorsal fin. Metamorphs. Body and limbs green; small dark spots in dorsum and dorsolateral region; iris silver. Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 1,272 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). In Central Amazonia tadpoles of B. raniceps were found in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes. In the igapó flooded forests of eastern Amazonia tadpoles of B. raniceps were found in both temporary and permanent lentic water bodies (Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1999).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFEEFFC4E0D0516E8E4FF864.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were first described by Miranda-Ribeiro (1926) from Cáceres, Brazil, and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting LRTF 2 / 3. They were also characterized by Cei (1980) from Argentina, Vizotto (1967) and Rossa-Feres & Nomura (2006) from southeastern Brazil, by Kolenc et al. (2008) from Argentina, Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia’s lowlands, and by Schulze et al. (2015) from Bolivia’s lowlands. Tadpoles from Argentina (Cei 1980) differ from those herein characterized by presenting vent tube dextral and an alternative LRTF 2 / 3. Tadpoles herein characterized do not differ from those characterized from southeastern Brazil (Vizotto 1967; Rossa-Feres & Nomura 2006), except by the oval snout in dorsal view, and from those characterized by from Argentina (Kolenc et al. 2008), except by variations found in only two specimens (a very short ventral gap in marginal papillae row and the presence of a short P 4 tooth row). Tadpoles from Bolivia’s lowland differs from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF [2 (1,2) / 3 (1) [2 ]], snout oval in dorsal view, nostrils directed dorsolaterally, and spiracle opening posterodorsally (Schulze et al. 2015). Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) illustrated these tadpoles as presenting LTRF 2 (1,2) / 3 (3).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF1FFDAE0D0571389B0F8BD.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum brown with darker reticulation; belly nearly tansparent; caudal musculature cream; fins translucent, both with brown reticulation. In life body, caudal musculature and fins slightly greenish (Martins & Moreira 1991). Metamorphs. Metamorph light brown with scattered dark dots on dorsum (Fig. 23 D). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. In eastern Amazonia the pigmented eggs are deposited as a roughly round monolayer film in water-filled depressions in sandy beaches or vegetation islands of black water rivers and lakes in igapó flooded forests. Tadpoles begin their development in these nests and move to the main water body when water level rises (Martins & Moreira 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF1FFDAE0D0571389B0F8BD.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were described by Martins & Moreira (1991) from Central Amazonia, Brazil, and from Colombia by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011). Tadpoles from Central Amazonia differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in dorsal view and slightly truncate in lateral view (although snout seems to be rounded in lateral view in Fig 2; Martins & Moreira 1991), tail tip rounded, dorsal fin originating on body, oral disc ventro-terminal, and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. There is no morphological variation between tadpoles from Colombia and those herein characterized. Genus Dendropsophus. Tadpoles of genus Dendropsophus found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: body elongate oval or ovoid in dorsal view and triangular or triangular / depressed in lateral view; tail tip pointed or with a flagellum; spiracle sinistral; vent tube dextral (exception: a medial vent tube in D. rossalleni); oral disc anteroventral or terminal; LTRF 0 / 0, 0 / 1 or 1 / 2.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF0FFD9E0D055A38829FC31.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown; fins translucent with dark brown marks on the posterior third. Tadpoles of D. cf. brevifrons from Ecuador have body dark brown medially and pale brown laterally; venter and sides of the body dark brown with cream flecks; tail tan with dark brown mottling and a bright red streak on the dorsal fin; iris gray-bronze with a red ring around the pupil (Duellman & Crump 1974). Natural history Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches from Ecuador and Peru contain between 48 and 114 pigmented eggs (Crump 1974; Duellman & Crump 1974; H ̂ dl 1990). Eggs are deposited on the upper surfaces of leaves overhanging streamside ponds in terra-firme forests; tadpoles fall in the water upon hatching (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are nektonic. Tadpole color pattern is presumably disruptive. Tadpoles of D. cf. brevifrons are preyed upon by the crab Fredius (R. J. Pegorini, pers. comm.).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF0FFD9E0D055A38829FC31.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of D. brevifrons described as Hyla brevifrons from Ecuador by Duellman (1978) differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes dorsolaterally directed, nostrils about midway between the tip of the snout and the eyes, and oral disc anterior (Duellman 1978). The opening of the spiracle is just above midline in tadpoles from Ecuador (Fig. 2 B; Duellman & Crump 1974). Tadpoles from Peru, characterized by Duellman (2005) and Wild (1992) differ from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils ovoid, spiracle opening just below the midline, dorsal fin originating on the proximal caudal musculature and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF2FFDFE0D052BB8F4FFF24.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown with many small rounded spots on the dorsum, lateral body and caudal musculature; fins translucent with irregular dark brown marks on the posterior third (Menin et al. 2020). In life dorsum, lateral and ventral body grayish-brown with small spots on the anterior portion of the body and yellowish pigment spots from the posterior portion of the body to the tail; digestive tract barely visible; fins translucent with irregular marks grayish-brown on the posterior portion; iris black (Menin et al. 2020). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 216 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). A clutch from Amapá, Brazil, contained 70 unpigmented eggs deposited in a gelatinous mass in the water surface (Menin et al. 2020). Tadpoles are nektonic. Tadpoles in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes. Tadpole color pattern is presumably disruptive.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF2FFDFE0D052BB8F4FFF24.taxon	discussion	Comments. No morphological variation was observed between populations characterized herein and those from Central Amazonia, in which the original tadpole description was based (Menin et al. 2020), and those of Colombia (Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga 2011).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF5FFDEE0D0530B8FA5FCE5.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown, with a broad dark longitudinal stripe from snout to eyes; fins pigmented, with translucent spots on the posterior third of the tail. In life dorsum brown to copper, venter silvery black; two broad longitudinal stripes run along the sides of the body; one black at the level of the eye and one silver just below. Posterior third to two-thirds of the tail heavily stained. Otherwise tail fin transparent. Caldwell & Araújo (2005) described the colour of newly hatched tadpoles from Pará, Brazil, as yellow-brown with a dark brown stripe on the tail bordered above by a gold stripe, clear fins, and eyes copper. Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches from Ecuador and Peru contain from 570 to 769 pigmented eggs (Crump 1974; Duellman 2005). Eggs are deposited on the tips of leaves overhanging water. Tadpoles are found in temporary ponds in Peru (Duellman 2005) or in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes in Central Amazonia (this study). In eastern Amazonia tadpoles are found amid dense vegetation in small ponds (Caldwell & Araújo 2005). Tadpoles are nektonic and the tail flagellum beats independently of the tail.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF5FFDEE0D0530B8FA5FCE5.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of D. leucophyllatus were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, Duellman (2005) from Peru, from northen Brazil in the State of Pará by Gomes & Peixoto (1991), by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia, and by Schulze et al. (2015) from Bolivia. These descriptions generally agree with the tadpoles characterized herein, except that the tadpoles from Ecuador present body violin-shaped in dorsal view, snout rounded in lateral view (as those from Brazil, Gomes & Peixoto 1991), nostrils about midway between the snout and the eye, and one row of large marginal papillae laterally. However, as tadpoles herein characterized, a row of marginal papillae is present around the oral disc except for a dorsal gap in tadpoles from Peru (Duellman 2005) and by a uniseriate row of marginal papillae anterolaterally and biseriate posteriorly in tadpoles from the state of Pará, Brazil (Gomes & Peixoto 1991). Moreover, tadpoles from Pará, Brazil differ from those herein characterized by presenting LRTF 0 / 1. Tadpoles from Bolivia lowlands (Schulze et al. 2015) differ from those herein characterized by having a violin-shaped body in dorsal view, snout sloped in lateral view, posterior jaw sheath widely V-shaped, nostrils anterolaterally positioned, spiracle sinistral and dorsally directed, vent tube dextral, and dorsal fin emerging posteriorly to border between body and tail.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF4FFDDE0D0514B8E50FC06.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature whitish with small gray dots, which concentrate along the margins of the fins, forming a thin stripe; venter opaque white; fins transparent to translucent. Tadpoles of D. marmoratus from Ecuador have olive-tan body with brown transverse marks; throat gray with black flecks; belly white (Duellman 1978). Metamorphs. Metamorphs marbled in shades of grey (Fig. 27 D). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches from Ecuador contain from 740 to 1580 eggs (Crump 1974). Eggs masses are laid in the water surface; tadpoles are found in streamside ponds in terrafirme forests or in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes. Tadpoles are nektonic.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF4FFDDE0D0514B8E50FC06.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of D. marmoratus from Ecuador (Duellman 1978) and from Peru (Duellman 2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a protruding ridge formed by short, fused papillae. Moreover, tadpoles from Peru present a massive and shallowly V-shaped posterior jaw sheath (Duellman 2005). The only morphological difference to tadpoles from Colombia is the dorsal fin originating at the body-tail junction and not on the posterior third of the body as in tadpoles herein characterized.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF7FFDCE0D0562B8FDBFE9D.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature whitish with small gray flecks; venter whitish, opaque; fins translucent. In life body transparent with a silver venter tail transparent (Hero 1990). Variation. LTRF 0 / 1 or 1 / 2 at Stages 27 and 28. Metamorphs: Metamorphs coppery grey (Fig. 28 D). Natural history: Gravid females contain on average 212 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Tadpoles are found in isolated temporary ponds of forest, forest edge and deforested land (Hero 1990). Tadpoles are found in the late rainy season. Tadpoles are nektonic.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF7FFDCE0D0562B8FDBFE9D.taxon	discussion	Comments. As expected, considering the wide geographical distribution of D. minutus, some morphological characters vary among populations, especially the number of marginal papillae rows and LTRF. Marginal papillae rows vary from uniseriate (Trinidad, Kenny 1969; Venezuela, Duellman 1997; northeastern Brazil, Dubeux et al. 2020; southeastern Brazil, Pezzuti et al. 2021), biseriate ventrally (Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, Bokermann 1963, although Fig. 21 shows biseriate also laterally; Colombian Amazonia, Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga 2011), biseriate ventrally and laterally (Ecuador, Duellman 1978; southeastern S „ o Paulo, Brazil, Heyer et al. 1990), uniseriate anteriorly, uni- or biseriate laterally and bi- or triseriate ventrally (lowlands of Bolívia, Schulze et al. 2015), and uniseriare ventrally and biseriate laterally (northwestern S „ o Paulo, Brazil, Rossa-Feres & Nomura 2006), as those described here from Central Amazonia, which differ from those with uniseriated marginal papillae illustrated in Hero (1990) for the same region. The labial tooth row formula varies from 0 / 1 (Bokermann 1963; Duellman 1997) to 0 / 2 (Duellman 1978), 0 / 0 - 2 (Schulze et al. 2015) and 1 / 2 (Kenny 1969: Cei 1980; Heyer et al. 1990; Dubeaux et al. 2020, Pezzuti et al. 2021; this study). It is important to note that LTRF in the same population can vary from 0 / 0 to 0 / 1 and 1 / 2 (Vizotto 1967; Rossa-Feres & Nomura 2006). Consistent with such variation, Duellman (1997) suggested that D. minutus could be a species-complex.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF6FFD3E0D0579C8CE4FDBC.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown; two broad longitudinal cream bars dorsally between above the eyes and the beginning of the tail; fins translucent with dark brown marks. Tadpoles of D. parviceps from Ecuador have body dark brown with two broad, transverse cream bars dorsally; tail pinkish orange or orange-tan with dark brown mottling (Duellman & Crump 1974). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in clumps in shallow water (Duellman & Crump 1974; Duellman 2005) of isolated and streamside forest ponds in terra-firme forests. Tadpoles are found in the late rainy season. Tadpoles are nektonic. Color pattern is presumably disruptive.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF6FFD3E0D0579C8CE4FDBC.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of D. parviceps described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes lateral, spiracle opening posterodorsally directed, oral disc anterior (but anteroventral in tadpoles from Peru; Duellman 2005), jaw sheaths robust, and dorsal fin not extending onto the body (Duellman 1978). Tadpoles from Peru characterized by Wild (1992) differ from those herein characterized by presenting body bluntly ovoid, and those from Peru characterized by Duellman (2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils located about midway between the tip of the snout and the eyes, spiracular opening posterodorsally directed below the midline (as in the tadpole from Central Amazonia represented in Fig. 13, Hero 1990, and in that from Ecuador represented in Fig. 2 C, Duellman & Crump 1974), and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. There is no morphological variation between tadpoles illustrated from Colombia by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) and those characterized herein.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF9FFD2E0D054FF899CFCE5.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature creamy; fins translucent. In life body and tail transparent (as Hyla sp. 1; Hero 1990). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females of D. rossalleni from Peru contain between 73 and 162 mature ovarian eggs (Aichinger 1992). Tadpoles are found in temporary ponds in open areas or in lakes. Tadpoles are nektonic and are found in the late rainy season. In captivity tadpoles of D. rossalleni preyed upon tadpoles of Chiasmocleis (this study).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF9FFD2E0D054FF899CFCE5.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, and were illustrated by Hero (1990) as Hyla sp. 1 (Plate 14), from Central Amazonia, Brazil, and by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia. There are no morphological differences between tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) and those herein characterized. Tadpoles illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a row of marginal papillae only laterally. Tadpoles described by Duellman (1978) markedly differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid, nostrils midway between the snout and the orbits, oral disc anteroventral with lateral folds, one row of marginal papillae with a dorsal gap, and LTRF 2 (2) / 3. These substantial differences raise doubts about the identification of the tadpoles described by Duellman (1978).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF8FFD1E0D05565893EFA39.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature light brown, with dark stripes between the eye and the snout; venter whitish with light brown small marks; fins translucent light brown, with non-pigmented area forming blotches. Natural history. Gravid females contain on average 181 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Tadpoles are found in permanent ponds of open and disturbed areas and in lakes of várzea and igapó floodplains.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFF8FFD1E0D05565893EFA39.taxon	discussion	Comments. This is the first description of Dendropsophus walfordi tadpoles. Genus Lysapsus. Only one species of Lysapsus is found in the Central Amazon.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFBFFD7E0D0543E891CFD59.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum grayish brown with dark brown spots; caudal musculature cream and fins translucent, both with vertical brown bars. In life dorsum greenish brown with scattered brown spots; sides and venter silver; iris bright red; anterior 2 / 3 of tail largely unpigmented and translucent, contrasting with the posterior third of tail, which is entirely black (Fig. 32 D). Variation. LTRF 2 / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 at Stages 30 and 31. Metamorphs. Metamorphs strongly resemble adults; color green with sparse gray marks and coppery red iris (Fig. 32 E). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 147 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). In Central Amazonia tadpoles of L. bolivianus are found in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes. In the igapó flooded forests of eastern Amazonia tadpoles of L. bolivianus are found in both temporary and permanent lentic water bodies (Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1999). Tadpoles are nektonic. Color pattern is presumably disruptive.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFBFFD7E0D0543E891CFD59.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles described by Santana et al. (2013) from the State of Amapá, Brazil, differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded to slightly acute in lateral view, nostrils elliptic, oral disc ventral and not emarginate, two rows of alternated marginal papillae (biseriate anteriorly, bi or triseriate laterally, and uniserate and short posteriorly), LTRF 2 (2) / 3, 2 (2) / 3 (1) and 2 / 3, tail fins low, dorsal and ventral fins almost parallel to the tail musculature. Genus Osteocephalus. Tadpoles of genus Osteocephalus found in Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: moderate size; body elongate oval or ovoid in dorsal view and globular or globular / depressed in lateral view; spiracle sinistral (ventrolateral in O. oophagus); dorsal and ventral fins shallow or of moderate height; oral disc anteroventral with one row of marginal papillae (biseriate in O. oophagus) except for a dorsal gap; submarginal papillae present; LTRF in variations of 2 / 3 and 2 / 5 - 7.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFDFFD6E0D0509F89BEFC5D.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature dark brown; venter whitish and translucent posteriorly; fins light brown and translucent. In life body dark blue with a clear medial band and a transparent venter; caudal musculature dark blue; fins transparent (as Osteocephalus buckleyi; Hero 1990). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3, 2 (2) / 3 (1), 2 (2) / 4, 2 (2) / 5, or 2 (2) / 6 at Stages 25, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 38 (Menin et al. 2011 a). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in small inlets along the bank of terra-firme forest streams, where they are protected from the water current; eggs at the water surface in pools formed by roots or depression in rocks. Tadpoles up to Stage 29 are found in these inlets (Menin et al. 2011 a). Clutches contain between 879 and 1,100 eggs (Menin et al. 2011 a). Tadpoles are found in most months of the year. In experiments eggs were found to be consumed by oophagous tadpoles, and tadpoles by fish and dragonfly larvae (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFDFFD6E0D0509F89BEFC5D.taxon	discussion	Comments. No morphological variation was observed between tadpoles herein characterized and those described in Menin et al. (2011 a) from Central Amazonia. Tadpoles from the same region illustrated by Hero (1990; Plate 16), differ from those herein characterized by presenting LRTF 2 (2) / 3 - 8 (1), and those illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia differ just by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFCFFD5E0D051838E38FF08.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum light grayish brown; anterior region of venter pigmented and posterior region without pigment; caudal musculature lighter than body and fins translucent. In life body transparent olive with a band of white chromatophores between the eyes and the mouth; tail transparent (as Osteocephalus sp.; Hero 1990). Metamorphs. Dorsal and lateral surfaces grey except for a black canthal stripe continuing as a supratympanic stripe, posterior to eye to insertion of the arm; dorsal surfaces of upper arm and proximal half of lower arm white; an orange spot on elbow; a large white spot, capped by a smaller orange one, on heel; another orange spot on knee and in some specimens on outer edge of the metatarsus; finger- and toe-discs orange; iris bright red (Fig. 34 E) (Jungfer & Schiesari 1995). Natural history. Eggs and tadpoles are found in phytotelms including ground or epiphytic bromeliads, palm leaf axils, water-filled palm bracts lying on the ground or (less frequently) tree holes up to heights of about 35 m in terra-firme forest (Fig. 34 D) (Jungfer & Schiesari 1995). Egg clutches are deposited in clumps of 10 – 69 eggs, totaling 111 to 506 eggs (Jungfer & Weygoldt 1999). Parents periodically return to lay unfertilized, trophic eggs to nourish the offspring in phytotelms. If the mother does not provide eggs, tadpoles fail to reach metamorphosis (Jungfer & Weygoldt 1999). Tadpoles are found in most months of the year.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFCFFD5E0D051838E38FF08.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of O. oophagus from Central Amazonia (Plate 17) were illustrated by Hero (1990) and described by Jungfer & Schiesari (1995) and Schiesari et al. (1996). All descriptions differ from tadpoles herein characterized by a body slightly depressed in lateral view.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFFFFABE0D05518882EFD58.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum grayish brown; caudal musculature cream and fins translucent, both with diffuse pigmentation. In life body transparent olive to brown with scattered white and / or black chromatophores; tail transparent (see Fig. 72 D, E) (Hero 1990; this study). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3, 2 (2) / 4, 2 (2) / 5, 2 (2) / 5 (1) between Stages 25 and 28. Metamorphs. dorsal and lateral surfaces grey except for a black canthal stripe continuing as a supratympanic stripe posterior to eye to insertion of the arm; dorsal surfaces of upper arm and proximal half of lower arm white; an orange spot on elbow; a large white spot, capped by a smaller orange one, on heel; another orange spot on knee; finger- and toe-discs orange; iris bright red (see Fig. 72 F). Natural history. Eggs are deposited as a floating film (Fig. 72 A – C) containing from 1,794 to 3,154 pigmented eggs (Gascon 1995). Tadpoles are found in all months of the year in isolated forest ponds, streamside ponds and occasionally streams in terra-firme forest and forest edge. Eggs are preyed upon by dytiscid beetle larvae (this study) and wasps (Lacey 1979; this study). Tadpoles are preyed upon by the snake Helicops angulatus (this study) and Pipa arrabali (Buchacher 1993). In experiments eggs were found to be avoided by fish but consumed by adult dytiscid beetles and Pipa arrabali (Magnusson & Hero 1991; Gascon 1992 a, b). In experiments tadpoles were found to be consumed by dragonfly larvae, oophagous tadpoles, Pipa arrabali and fish (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991; Gascon 1992 a, b). O. taurinus tadpoles are oophagous (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFFFFFABE0D05518882EFD58.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of O. taurinus from French Guiana (Duellman 1978) differ from those herein characterized by presenting body elongately elliptical in dorsal view, vent tube dextral, tail acutely rounded, marginal papillae biseriate, and LTRF 3 / 5. Tadpoles from Peru present body ovoid, snout broad and bluntly rounded, vent tube dextral and pointed tail tip (Duellman 2005). Tadpoles from the Bolivia lowlands have vent tube medial with a dextral opening, marginal papillae row varying from uniseriate to biseriate anterolaterally, laterally and posteriorly (Schulze et al. 2015). Tadpoles from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and described in detail by Schiesari et al. (1996). Tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting papillae round, submarginal papillae lateroanteriorly and lateroposteriorly, P 5 ad P 6 shorter than the anterior tooth rows, spiracle posteriorly directed, and tail tip narrow. Those described by Schiesari et al. (1996) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a uniseriate row of papillae anteriorly and biseriate lateroventrally.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF80FFA9E0D05704891FF97F.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body gray with brownish-gray spots arranged in a marbled pattern, skin of venter translucent; caudal musculature with brownish-gray spots arranged in a marbled pattern, occasionally appearing the unpigmented, beige colour of musculature, especially on proximal part of tail; fins opaque brownish-gray. Natural history. The species is found in várzea floodplains.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF80FFA9E0D05704891FF97F.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of P. paradoxa were described by Kenny (1969) from Trinidad, Duellman (2005) from Peru, Lynch (2006) and Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia, and Schulze et al. (2015) from the lowlands of Bolivia. There are no morphological differences with the descriptions of Kenny (1969) and Lynch (2006). Tadpoles from Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Duellman 2005), differ from those herein characterized by presenting row of marginal uniseriate anterolaterally and biseriate laterally, along a truly short stretch (Fig. 13.13 D; Duellman 2005), and a rounded snout in lateral view (Duellman 2005). Tadpoles from Bolivia (Schulze et al. 2015) and from Colombia illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) differ from those herein characterized by, respectively, presenting marginal papilla row biseriate to irregularly aligned triseriate and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped, and a uniseriate row of marginal papillae. Genus Scarthyla. Only one species of Scarthyla is found in the Central Amazonia.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF83FFAFE0D054FD8843FEC0.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature creamy white; dorsum with large blotches; fins translucent with large blotches. In life not observed in Central Amazonia, but tadpoles of S. goinorum from Peru have body with dorsum and sides pale yellowish green; venter silvery white; caudal musculature and fins pale green with brown blotches; iris reddish copper (Duellman 2005). Natural history. Eggs not observed. Gravid females of S. goinorum from Peru contain from 130 to 202 pigmented ovarian eggs (Duellman 2005). In Central Amazonia tadpoles of S. goinorum are found in the root zone of floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF83FFAFE0D054FD8843FEC0.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. goinorum from Peru were described by Duellman (2005). They differ from those herein characterized by presenting ventral fin shallow, snout bluntly rounded in dorsal view and acutely rounded in lateral view, caudal musculature robust, dorsal fin originating on caudal musculature well posterior to the terminus of the body, tail tip acutely rounded (Fig. 13.6 E; Duellman 2005), oral disc laterally emarginate and the anteriormost three or four papillae much larger than the others. LTRF is 2 (1) / 2 or 2 (1,2) / 2 (1), but the author mentions that in a few specimens, there are a few teeth forming an incomplete row on the margin of the posterior labium (Fig. 13.14 F; Duellman 2005). The only morphological difference between tadpoles from Colombia illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) is the dorsal fin originating at the tail. Genus Scinax. Tadpoles of genus Scinax found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: small size; body ovoid in dorsal view and triangular or triangular / depressed in lateral view; spiracle sinistral; vent tube dextral with a dextral opening; dorsal fin of moderate height or high; oral disc anteroventral, ventrolaterally emarginate; submarginal papillae present laterally; LTRF in variations from 2 / 3.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF85FFAEE0D053688982FEB9.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body light greenish yellow; venter translucent with digestive tract dark gray; caudal musculature cream, with melanophores forming transverse bars; fins translucent with scarce melanophores. In life body light green; caudal musculature light brown; fins translucent with a light green coloration near to caudal musculature; iris silvery white with a red horizontal streak (D. J. Rodrigues, pers. comm.). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 480 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Tadpoles are found in isolated temporary ponds in terra-firme forest clearings or forest edge.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF85FFAEE0D053688982FEB9.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. boesemani from Guyana were described by de Sá et al. (1997) but their identity was questioned by Faivovich (2002). Those tadpoles differ from these herein characterized by presenting a uniseriate row of marginal papillae, A 2 and P 2 widely separately, P 3 very short and positioned in an extended arm that does not interrupt the row of marginal papillae, and by possessing a V-shaped anterior jaw sheath.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF84FFADE0D053BE8909FDE1.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature light olive brown; a lateral brown stripe from oral disc to caudal musculature; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with dark reticulation. Tadpoles of S. cruentomma from Ecuador have body olive-green with a brown streak from the snout to the orbit; venter white with a silvery sheen; caudal musculature pale yellow; fins transparent, both with brown flecks; iris bronze with a red horizontal streak (Duellman 1972, 1978). Recently metamorphosed young from Ecuador were olive-green with brown flecks dorsally; diffuse creamy yellow dorsolateral stripes; flanks brown; thighs pale greenish yellow; venter greenish white; iris bronze with a red horizontal streak (Duellman 1972). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Clutches of S. cruentomma from Ecuador contain from 590 to 1,200 eggs (Crump 1974). Tadpoles in temporary ponds in terra-firme forests and, most frequently, forest edge and deforested land.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF84FFADE0D053BE8909FDE1.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. cruentomma were described by Duellman (1972) from Ecuador. They differ from these herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in lateral view, nostrils midway between the snout and the eyes, spiracle posterodorsally directed, oral disc with row of marginal papillae biseriate ventrolaterally, oral disc laterally emarginate (although Duellman´s Fig. 3 shows an oral disc without emarginations), LRTF 2 (2) / 3 (1), and anterior jaw sheath M-shaped. Even though Duellman (1978) characterized the same tadpole (KU 125932), he considered the snout sloped in lateral view and truncate terminally, the other differences in relation to tadpoles herein characterized are the same presented for the Duellman (1972) tadpole description.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF87FFACE0D050468985FD75.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature light cream; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with brown flecks. In life body and tail transparent green; tail completely transparent with a darker reticulation over the fins; venter silver; eye red. Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females of S. garbei from Peru contain from 551 to 590 pigmented ovarian eggs (Duellman 2005) and those from Ecuador contain from 445 to 905 eggs (Duellman 1978). Eggs are deposited as a surface film (Duellman 1978) in várzea floodplain lakes or in temporary ponds of terra-firme forests, forest edge and deforested land.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF87FFACE0D050468985FD75.taxon	discussion	Comments. S. garbei tadpoles were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, and by Duellman (2005) from Peru. Tadpoles described by Duellman (1978, 2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils midway between the snout and the eyes, oral disc with lateral emarginations, and LTRF 2 (2) / 3. Those described by Duellman (2005) also differ from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils ovoid.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF86FFACE0D050FA8E43F8AD.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature greenish yellow; venter translucent with digestive tract dark gray; fins translucent; dorsum, caudal musculature and fins with numerous melanophores. In life dorsum and anterior dorsal part of the caudal musculature light brown; venter silver; fins translucent; a black stripe from the snout to the base of caudal musculature; iris silver. Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 (1) at Stages 25, 26, 33, 36, and 37. Metamorphs. Metamorph green with coppery dorsum; dark dorsolateral stripe between snout and eye; iris copper (Fig. 42 D). Natural history. Gravid females of S. ruber from Ecuador contain from 591 to 1,117 ovarian eggs (Crump 1974) and those from Peru contain from 745 to 1,890 eggs (Aichinger 1992). Eggs are pigmented. Tadpoles are found in temporary and permanent ponds in terra-firme forests, forest edge and deforested land all the way to the margins of large rivers. Tadpoles are found during the rainy season. In experiment tadpoles were found to be preyed upon by dragonfly larvae (Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1992).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF86FFACE0D050FA8E43F8AD.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. ruber were described by Kenny (1969) from Trinidad, by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, by Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia, Brazil, by Lynch (2006) and Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from Colombia, and by Schulze et al. (2015) from lowland Bolivia. Tadpoles described by Kenny (1969), Duellman (1978), Duellman (2005) and Hero (1990) are similar to those herein characterized. Tadpoles characterized by Lynch (2006) and by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a single row of marginal papillae and by seeming to present higher body and fins in lateral view. The LTRF varies among these descriptions, but all fall within the range herein presented.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF89FFA3E0D0577C88B0F85B.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature creamy white with many melanophores distributed in blotches; fins translucent with melanophores forming blotches in a marbled pattern. Natural history. Eggs were not observed. Tadpoles are found in floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF88FFA2E0D057118859F8AE.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature creamy white with many melanophores distributed in blotches; fins translucent with melanophores forming blotches in a marbled pattern. Metamorphs. Metamorph marbled grey with a drak grey dorsolateral stripe; iris reddish. Natural history. Eggs were not observed. Tadpoles are found in isolated forest ponds in terra-firme forests.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8BFFA0E0D057168F4BFAB1.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature light brown with numerous melanophores; fins translucent with very light and fine reticulation. Natural history. Eggs were not observed. Tadpoles are found in várzea floodplains. Genus Sphaenorhynchus. Tadpoles of genus Sphaenorhynchus found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: small to moderate size; body oval elongate or ovoid in dorsal view and globular or globular / depressed in lateral view; spiracle sinistral; vent tube medial with medial opening; oral disc anteroventral, non-emarginate or ventrally emarginate; marginal papillae uniseriate with a dorsal gap; submarginal papillae absent; LTRF 1 / 2 (1) or 2 (2) / 3 (1).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8AFFA7E0D057B78F2EFE54.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature light olive brown with irregular dark brown marks; fins translucent with dark brown irregular marks; venter with two dark brown longitudinal stripes, one on each side of the gular region. Tadpoles of S. carneus from Colombia have dorsum green with a canthal line red; caudal musculature with a red line; fins green translucent; venter with two evident purple longitudinal stripes, one on each side of the gular region (Suárez-Mayorga & Lynch 2001). Variation. LTRF 0 / 0 in Stages 25 and 26, 0 / 2 (1) or 1 / 2 (1) between Stages 26 and 29. Metamorphs. Metamorphs yellowish green with a grey mark between the eyes (Fig. 46 D, E). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 152 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Tadpoles are found in floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8AFFA7E0D057B78F2EFE54.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) from the eastern lowlands of Colombia and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF 1 / 3 (1), dorsal gap in the marginal papillae row, and tail tip pointed.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8DFFA6E0D055298CCBF954.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature grayish brown; dorsum with a dark brown longitudinal stripe; fins mottled and translucent; venter grayish. In life not observed, but tadpoles of S. dorisae from Colombia have venter whitish in the anterior region and pinkish in the posterior region; fins pinkish translucent with small brown spots; iris silvery white (Suárez-Mayorga & Lynch 2001). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 326 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Clutches from Peru contain from 147 to 218 green eggs (Rodríguez & Duellman 1994). Tadpoles are found in floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8DFFA6E0D055298CCBF954.taxon	discussion	Comments. S. dorisae tadpoles from Colombia (Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga 2011) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a ventral gap in marginal papillae row, corresponding to the width of P 3, and few (less than 10) submarginal papillae.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8CFFA5E0D0549B8E52FAF5.taxon	description	Colour. In life body olive brown with golden flecks on the sides; dorsal and ventral thirds of eyes golden, medial third red; fins translucent with a marbled brown pattern and scattered golden chromatophores (Fig. 48 A). Metamorphs. Metamorphs green with yellow reflections in head, dorsum and legs (Fig. 48 B). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females contain on average 478 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990). Tadpoles are found in floating meadows in várzea floodplain lakes.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8CFFA5E0D0549B8E52FAF5.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. lacteus were described by Duellman (2005) from Peru and by Lynch & SuárezMayorga (2011) from Colombia. Tadpoles of Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes large, ventral tube dextral, LRTF 2 (2) / 3 (1), dorsal fin originating on the proximal caudal musculature (although his Fig. 13.8 E shows dorsal fin originating at the tail-body junction), slender tail tip, posterior jaw sheath broadly V-shaped. Tadpoles from Colombia differ from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (1). Genus Trachycephalus. Tadpoles of genus Trachycephalus found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: moderate size; body elongate oval in dorsal view and triangular in lateral view; dorsal fin of moderate height or high; oral disc anteroventral, ventrolaterally emarginate; marginal papillae biseriate with a dorsal gap; submarginal papillae present.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8FFFBBE0D0577B8E3FFEB9.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature grayish brown with wide black spots; venter translucent; fins translucent with scattered melanophores. In life body pale to dark grayish brown commonly with wide black spots; caudal musculature pale to dark brown, commonly with black spots, with one dorsolateral and one ventrolateral white stripe per side; fins transparent with or without melanophores; venter silvery white; iris golden to cooper (Fig. 49 D – E) (Schiesari & Moreira 1996). Metamorphs. Dorsum bronze with black spots; venter white; eyes red; loreal area cream; black canthal stripe continues laterally until angles of jaw; limbs greenish brown, except for cream dorsum of arms and heels; fingers and toes translucent orange; bones green (Fig. 49 F) (Schiesari & Moreira 1996). Natural history. One gravid female of T. coriaceus from Ecuador contained 1,430 ovarian eggs (Crump 1974). Clutches from Peru contain from 1,150 to 1,350 eggs (Duellman 2005). Pigmented eggs are deposited in a circular monolayer film on the water surface. The only reproductive event recorded in Central Amazonia occurred immediately after a heavy storm formed a large (400 m 2, 1 m deep), temporary, isolated forest pond in terra-firme forest (Schiesari & Moreira 1996).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF8FFFBBE0D0577B8E3FFEB9.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from the same lot described by Schiesari & Moreira (1996) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in lateral view, spiracle lateroventral, oral disc non-emarginate, and marginal papillae row uniseriate to biseriate. Tadpoles of T. coriaceus from Peru described by Duellman (2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in dorsal and lateral view, vent tube dextral, submarginal papillae absent, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped, LTRF 4 (1,3,4) / 7 (1) and posterior tooth rows shorter than the anterior ones, being P 6 and P 7 the shortest and poorly developed.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF91FFBAE0D053BF8E83FCC8.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature brownish, with tail slightly lighter; fins brown with many melanophores constituting a reticulate pattern along all area of fins, except for the first third of ventral fin. In life body light to dark olive, sometimes with black dots; venter silver; fins transparent (Hero 1990; pers. obs.). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 4 at Stages 26 – 31, 34 and 39; 2 (2) / 5 at Stage 32. Metamorphs. Dorsum dark brown with large silvery white spots; light brown triangular mark between the eyes; legs and arms with darker brown bars; iris golden with a black Maltese cross centered on the pupil (based on photo and description by Lima et al. 2012). Natural history. Eggs and tadpoles in large, spacious (5.8 – 90 L) tree holes up to 32 m high in terra-firme forests. Eggs are deposited in water and consist of a gelatinous egg mass that primarily floats on or near the surface but often adheres to the inner wall of the tree hole. Clutches contain from 106 to 1,540 pigmented eggs (Schiesari et al. 2003 a). Tadpoles are found during the rainy season. Tadpoles feed on detritus and conspecifIc fertilized eggs (Schiesari et al. 2003 a).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF91FFBAE0D053BF8E83FCC8.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of T. resinifictrix from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting oral disc without emarginations, LTRF 2 (2) / 3 - 5, and the second posterior tooth row remarkedly shorter than the others. Tadpoles from Panguana, Peru (Grillitsch 1992) differ from those herein characterized by presenting marginal papillae arranged mostly alternating, in one to three row and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia described by Schiesari et al. (1996) differ from those herein characterized only by presenting rounded snout in lateral view.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF90FFB9E0D0516F8C6AF8FE.taxon	description	Colour. Tadpoles of T. typhonius (as Phrynohyas venulosa) from Peru have dorsum pale brown with darker brown spots; venter bluish gray; dorsal edge and midlateral part of the caudal musculature dark brown; two cream stripes present on the tail; fins translucent (Duellman 2005). In life not observed, but tadpoles of T. typhonius (as Phrynohyas venulosa) from Peru have body brown dorsally, with a few scattered dark brown flecks; venter dull white; caudal musculature cream with brown stripes, but distal part of the tail bluish gray; iris reddish bronze (Duellman 1978, 2005). Variation. LTRF varied from 2 / 3 at Stage 25; 3 / 4 at Stages 30, 31, and 38; 3 / 5 at Stages 34, 35, 39, and 40, and 4 / 5 at Stage 36 (presence and position of gaps not indicated) (Schiesari et al. 1996). Natural history. Eggs were not observed in Central Amazonia. Gravid females of T. typhonius from Peru contain from 1,230 to 1,820 pigmented eggs (Duellman 2005). Eggs are deposited as a surface film on the surface of the water in temporary ponds (Duellman 1978, 2005). In Central Amazonia T. typhonius occurs in várzea floodplains and deforested land. Eggs and tadpoles were found in several small pools formed in disturbed areas in Eastern Amazonia, Pará, Brazil (Caldwell & Araújo 2005). Ponds ranged from very small to 4 m in diameter and lacked vegetation, and tadpoles aggregated in two large, loosely organized schools (Caldwell & Araújo 2005).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF90FFB9E0D0516F8C6AF8FE.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of T. typhonius were described by Kenny (1969) as Phrynohyas zonata from Trinidad; Duellman (1970) as Phrynohyas venulosa from Panamá and México, and Duellman (1978, 2005) from Ecuador and Peru, respectively; Schiesari et al. (1996) as Phrynohyas venulosa from northern Amazonia, Roraima, Brazil; Rossa-Feres & Nomura (2006) as Trachycephalus venulosus from Southeastern Brazil, Lynch (2006) from Colombia, and by Schulze et al. (2015) from lowland Bolivia. Tadpoles differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout sloped in lateral view, LRTF 4 (1,2,4) / 6 (1,6), and posterior jaw sheath V-shaped (Rossa-Feres & Nomura 2006; Duellman 1970); snout rounded in lateral view, vent tube dextral, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped, LTRF 3 (1,3) / 6 (1,6), being the inner anterior and the outer posterior rows present only laterally (although Fig. 13.14 C shows a short ventral P 6; Duellman 2005; Lynch 2006); vent tube sinistral (Duellman 1978) and LRTF 3 (1) / 6 with a weak P 6 row; vent tube dextral and absence of submarginal papillae (Duellman 2005); uniseriate row of marginal papillae and LRTF 3 (1,3) / 5 (1,2,3) (Fig. 26; Kenny 1969); oral disc slightly emarginate posteriorly, marginal papillae irregularly uniseriate to biseriate, posterior jaw-sheath V-shaped (Schulze et al. 2015). Moreover, Schulze et al. (2015) considered the tail as possessing a broad flagellum and commented that LRTF is very variable with regard to tooth rows and gaps, 3 - 4 (1,3,4) [2] / 4 - 6 (1,6) [3,5], explaining the difference in these characters in the several descriptions. This variation encompasses the difference in LRTF considered by Pyburn (1967) to differentiate P. spilomma from T. typhonius (as P. venulosa). LEPTODACTYLIDAE. Tadpoles of the leptodactylid species occurring in Central Amazonia belong to three genera with free-swimming (Leptodactylus and Lithodytes) or terrestrial endotrophic tadpoles (Adenomera). The morphology of these genera is very distinctive. Genus Adenomera. Tadpoles of genus Adenomera found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: small size; body oval elongate in dorsal view and globular / depressed in lateral view; spiracle absent; vent tube medial; oral disc anteroventral; marginal papillae uniseriate with dorsal and ventral gaps; LTRF 0 / 0.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF93FFB8E0D0557D8E74F857.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum brown, venter cream, tail whitish and fins translucent whitish (Menin & Rodrigues 2013). In life dorsum brown; venter translucent yellow; fins translucent; tail whitish (Menin & Rodrigues 2013). Metamorphs. Dorsum brown with numerous dark marks in most individuals; dorsum brown with two light dorsolateral stripes; venter whitish (Lima et al. 2012). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a foam nest in underground chambers constructed by the males (Lima et al. 2012) or inside a decomposing fallen log (Menin & Rodrigues 2013) in terra-firme forests. An egg clutch contained 7 unpigmented eggs (Menin & Rodrigues 2013). Endotrophic tadpoles complete development in the nest (Lima et al. 2012).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF93FFB8E0D0557D8E74F857.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of A. andreae from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and described by Menin & Rodrigues (2013). No morphological variation was observed between tadpoles herein characterized and those drawed in Hero (1990). Tadpoles described by Menin & Rodrigues (2013) differ from those herein characterized by presenting posterior jaw sheath horny, broadly-arched.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF95FFBEE0D052BB8F05FE0C.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum brown; venter whitish; caudal musculature and fins translucent whitish (Menin et al. 2009 b). In life dorsum dark brown; venter translucent yellow; fins translucent and caudal musculature whitish (Menin et al. 2009 b). Metamorphs. Dorsum with scattered dark marks on a brown background; venter and throat white; iris bronze (Lima et al. 2012). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a foam nest in underground chambers constructed by the males in open areas or in forest edge. Clutches contain from 8 to 9 unpigmented eggs (Menin et al. 2009 b). Endotrophic tadpoles complete development in the nest (Menin et al. 2009 b; Lima et al. 2012). Eggs are preyed upon by phorid fly larvae (Menin et al. 2009 b).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF95FFBEE0D052BB8F05FE0C.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of A. hylaedactyla were described by Heyer & Silverstone (1969) from French Guiana. Heyer (1973) also characterized tadpoles of this species from several countries in northern South America, but without informing their locality. Menin et al. (2009 b) analyzed ontogenetic variation of tadpoles from Central Amazon. No morphological variation was observed between these characterizations, and that herein presented. Genus Leptodactylus. Tadpoles of genus Leptodactylus found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: body ovoid or elongate oval in dorsal view and globular or globular / depressed in lateral view; spiracle sinistral; tail fins generally of moderate height; vent tube medial; oral disc anteroventral (ventral in L. riveroi), with marginal papillae uniseriate or bisseriate and with a dorsal gap; LTRF derived from 2 / 3 (except L. pentadactylus).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF94FFBEE0D053D38914F800.taxon	description	External morphology. Description based on five tadpoles at Stages 37 and 38 (LCS 479). Total length 70.2 ± 2.7 mm (N = 5). Body ovoid in dorsal view and globular in lateral view (Fig. 54 A, B). Snout truncate in dorsal and lateral views. Eyes small, dorsally positioned and dorsolaterally directed. Nostrils small, oval, dorsolaterally positioned near to snout, with opening anterolaterally directed, without a projection on the marginal rim. Oral disc (Fig. 54 C) anteroventral, non-emarginate; marginal papillae conical, uniseriate and alternate, with a dorsal gap. Submarginal papillae absent. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 (1); A 1 and A 2 of the same length; P 1 and P 2 nearly of the same length and longer than P 3. Jaw sheaths wide, finely serrated; anterior jaw sheath arch-shaped, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. Spiracle single, sinistral, conical, short and wide, posterodorsally directed, opening in the medial third of the body, with the centripetal wall fused to the body wall and longer than the external wall. Vent tube medial, fused to the ventral fin, with a medial opening. As typical to tadpoles of L. pentadactylus group, tail long, corresponding to about 68 % of total length; caudal musculature of moderate width; in lateral view gradually tapering to a pointed tip. Dorsal fin shallow, originating at the tail-body junction, convex; ventral fin shallow with margin parallel to the ventral margin of caudal musculature. Tail tip pointed. Lateral lines visible. Colour. In preservative dorsum light to dark grayish-brown; venter beige to light brown opaque; caudal musculature light beige to brown; fins barely translucent to opaque; caudal musculature and fins with or without many small marks. In life dorsum grey, beige or dark olive; venter silver; caudal musculature grey or dark olive; fins transparent (Hero 1990; pers. obs.) to opaque, depending on developmental Stage; tadpoles in advanced developmental stages with dark brown transversal bars between the eyes and in the dorsum (Fig. 54 D, E). Variation. LTRF 1 / 2 (1) at Stages 26 and 27, 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 (1) at Stages 31 to 34. A 1 and P 3 rows are almost imperceptible at Stages 26 and 27; body less pigmented from Stages 26 to 35, allowing observation of the digestive tract, which is less visible after Stage 36 (Pinto & Menin 2017). Metamorphs. Metamorphs present a relatively rough skin; dorsal region grayish brown with one brown dorsolateral stripe per sides and well-defined, narrow transversal bars between the eyes and on the dorsum; canthus rostralis brown; venter uniformly white; inguinal region reddish. Natural history. Large foam nests (~ 15 cm in diameter) are deposited in basins excavated by the males in the margins of shallow, temporary, isolated or streamside ponds in terra-firme forest and forest edge; tadpoles complete the development in the water (Lima et al. 2012; Pinto & Menin 2017; this study). Clutches contain from 157 to 627 pale yellow eggs (Pinto & Menin 2017). Elongated tadpoles use serpentine locomotion to wriggle in foam and mud. Tadpoles are benthic and camouflaged against the substrate, lightly colored if in muddy ponds with clayish substrate, darkly colored if in clear water with leafy substrate. Tadpoles are found in all months of the year. Tadpole feeding habits include oophagy and necrophagy. Eggs and embryos are preyed upon by ephydrid fly larvae, ants and wasps (Lacey 1979). Tadpoles are preyed upon by wasps (Lacey 1979) and Pipa arrabali (Buchacher 1993). In experiments eggs were preyed upon by oophagous tadpoles (Magnusson & Hero 1991) and tadpoles by dragonfly larvae and fish (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF94FFBEE0D053D38914F800.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L. knudseni were described as L. pentadactylus by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador. They differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in dorsal and lateral views. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and differ from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF 2 (2) / 2 - 3 [1] [2], dorsal fin originating on the tail, and a narrowly rounded tail tip. Heyer & Heyer (2006) characterized tadpoles from Guyana, which differ from those herein characterized by presenting LTRF 2 (2) / 2 - 3 (1). Moreover, these authors mention that often the lateral and ventrolateral marginal papillae row are alternated in such a way that makes it difficult to determine whether it is a single or double row of papillae.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF97FFBCE0D054968FF5F824.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum brown with irregular spots, venter transparent; caudal musculature and fins with white and brown chromatophores; fins translucent; in some individuals tail become distinctly covered by many large brown spots. In life body grey; venter transparent; caudal musculature grey; fins transparent with bluish white flecks (Hero 1990); background color grayish beige and grayish pink to brown with black, brown and white spots in dorsum and especially in tail musculature; in some tadpoles tail almost entirely black. Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 2 at Stage 27. Metamorphs. Dorsum uniformly grayish brown with a faint dorsolateral line; canthus rostralis whitish; venter whitish cream; limbs light brown with discrete dark spots (Fig. 55 D). Natural history. Foam nests in underground chambers excavated by males by very shallow temporary ponds (Lima et al. 2012) in open areas and forest edge. Tadpoles are benthic. Tadpoles are found during the rainy season.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF97FFBCE0D054968FF5F824.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L longirostris were described by Crombie & Heyer (1983) from eastern Amazonia in Pará, Brazil, and no morphological variation was observed in comparison to the tadpoles herein characterized. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia illustrated by Hero (1990) as Leptodactylus fuscus / longirostris differ from those herein characterized by presenting tail tip rounded.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF99FFB2E0D052BB8804FDBC.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature light brown; dorsum and lateral regions of the body, caudal musculature and fins covered by many, homogeneously distributed small chromatophores; fins translucent. In life body transparent olive grey; caudal musculature transparent olive grey; fins transparent (as Leptodactylus ocellatus in Hero 1990). Variation. LTRF 2 / 3 or 2 / 3 (1) between Stages 36 and 39. Metamorphs. Metamorphs light brown. One individual in Stage 42 presented faint, early developing dorsolateral glandular lines that are characteristic of the adults. Natural history. Floating foam nests guarded by females in temporary ponds in open and disturbed areas. Tadpoles form schools in the water column. Eggs and tadpoles are prey to Typhlonectes compressicauda (Verdade et al. 2000).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF99FFB2E0D052BB8804FDBC.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L. macrosternum described by Dixon & Staton (1976) from Venezuela differ from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils dorsally positioned, spiracle narrow and, P 1 to P 3 of same length. Tadpoles from Argentina characterized by Cei (1980) differ from those herein characterized only by dorsal fin originating on the end of the body. Tadpoles of L. macrosternum from Central Amazonia illustrated by Hero (1990) as Leptodactylus ocellatus differ from those herein characterized by presenting marginal papillae uniseriate anterolaterally, spiracle narrow, nostrils dorsally positioned, and tip tail rounded. The terminal position of the oral disc in tadpoles from Bolivia (Schulze et al. 2015) is the same we considered anteroventral herein. Moreover, tadpoles from Bolivia differ from those herein characterized by presenting oral disc not emarginate, marginal papillae triangular, nostrils rounded, and dorsal fin originating in the posterior third of the body (although in Fig. 36 a it seems originating at the tail-body junction). Tadpoles from northeastern Brazil (Dubeux et al. 2020) differ from those characterized herein by the eyes relatively small and the spiracle positioned more anteriorly at the body.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF98FFB1E0D050A38CC6FC79.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature brown; venter transparent brown; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with dark brown flecks. In life body olive green with scattered white chromatophores (Hero 1990). Metamorphs. Dorsum light brown wih dark brown transverse marks; distinct white stripe along the anterior lip; a black band extends from the nostril to the posterior margin of the tympanum (based on photo and description by Lima et al. 2012). Natural history. Gravid females of L. mystaceus from Ecuador contain from 171 to 425 ovarian eggs (Duellman 1978; H ̂ dl 1990). Foam nests in floor, small basin or burrow excavated by males in mud, under trunks and tree roots, near to isolated ponds in terra-firme forest, forest edge or deforested land; tadpoles move to the ponds when the basin is flooded by rain (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are found in the rainy season.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF98FFB1E0D050A38CC6FC79.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L. mystaceus from Ecuador described by Duellman (1978) differ from those herein characterized by presenting eyes of moderate size, oral disc ventral and emarginate laterally, one row of marginal papillae, LRTF 2 (2) / 3, and tail tip pointed. No morphological variation was observed between tadpoles herein characterized and those from Central Amazonia, Brazil, illustrated by Hero (1990) and northeastern Brazil, characterized by Dubeux et al. (2020).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9BFFB0E0D051FF8C14FE0D.taxon	description	External morphology. Description based on one tadpole at Stage 36 (INPA-H 10321). Total length 73.4 mm. Body ovoid in dorsal view and globular / depressed in lateral view (Fig. 58 A, B). Snout rounded in dorsal view and truncate in lateral view. Eyes small, dorsally positioned and dorsolaterally directed. Nostrils small, circular, dorsolaterally positioned in an intermediate distance between the eyes and the snout, with opening anterolaterally direct- ed, without a projection on the marginal rim. Oral disc (Fig. 58 C) anteroventral, non-emarginate; marginal papillae blunt, uniseriate, with a dorsal gap. Submarginal papillae absent. LTRF 1 / 2 (1); P 2 shorter than P 1. Jaw sheaths wide, finely serrated; anterior jaw sheath arch-shaped, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. Spiracle single, lateroventral, conical, short and wide, posterodorsally directed, opening in the medial third of the body, with the centripetal wall fused to the body wall and longer than the external wall. Vent tube medial, fused to the ventral fin, with a medial opening. As typical to tadpoles of L. pentadactylus group, tail long, corresponding to about 68 % of total length; caudal musculature of moderate width; in lateral view gradually tapering to a pointed tip. Dorsal fin shallow, originating at the tail, convex; ventral fin shallow with margin parallel to the ventral margin of caudal musculature. Tail tip rounded. Colour. In preservative dorsum grayish brown; venter cream; caudal musculature cream; fins translucent pale cream. In life body and caudal musculature dark grey or black; venter silver or ark silver; fins translucent (Menin et al. 2010). Metamorphs. Dorsal region reddish brown with well-defined, narrow transverse bands between the eyes and on the dorsum; each side has one dorsolateral stripe from eye to the middle of the urostyle and a thicker stripe beginning at the mouth, passing through nostrils and eyes, and making a downward curve and ending above the tympanum; mouth traversed by transversal bars through its entire width; venter with light patches on a dark gray background; limbs with transversal thick stripes. Natural history. Eggs were not observed. Foam nests are deposited in burrows in clayish soil, within an excavated basin at the bottom of the burrow; the observed burrows had no water and were distant from water bodies (Hero & Galatti 1990; Menin et al. 2010). Eggs were observed in the gut of one tadpole at Stage 29 (Menin et al. 2010). All tadpoles examined had the abdomen heavily irrigated by wide, well ramified blood vessels visible from dorsal and lateral views. This morphological feature plus completely terrestrial development might argue that tadpole development is sustained by yolk, but the very large size attained by larvae and the observation of eggs in tadpole guts in the few nests found suggest that oral food consumption is obligate. In experiment L. pendadactylus was found to be a voracious amphibian egg-eater (Magnusson & Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9BFFB0E0D051FF8C14FE0D.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles from Ecuador characterized by Duellman (1978) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in lateral view, spiracle opening at midline of body, LTRF 2 (2) / 3, and tail tip pointed. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and described by Menin et al. (2010). Tadpoles from Peru were described by Duellman (2005). Tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting dorsal fin parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tail. Tadpoles described by Menin et al. (2010) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in dorsal and lateral views, and spiracle posteriorly directed. Tadpoles described by Duellman (2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded in dorsal and lateral views, vent tube dextral, and LRTF 2 / 3 with all tooth rows of same length (Duellman 2005).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9AFFB7E0D057E78CCEFD75.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature brown, venter lighter; fins translucent. In life body dark brown / black; tail dark brown / black but becoming lighter towards the tip of the tail (as Leptodactylus wagneri / podicipinus in Hero 1990). Gut perfectly visible through ventral skin. Natural history. Gravid females of L. petersii from Peru contain between 465 and 655 ovarian eggs (Aichinger 1992). Foam nests are deposited in a depression excavated by the male under fallen leaves at the edge of isolated forest ponds in terra-firme forests (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles were collected in the dry season. In experiments tadpoles were found to be preyed upon by fish (Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9AFFB7E0D057E78CCEFD75.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L. petersii from Central Amazonia were illustrated as Leptodactylus wagneri / podicipinus by Hero (1990) and described from Peru by Heyer (1994) and Duellman (2005). The tadpole illustrated by Hero (1990, Plate 32) is, according to Heyer (1994), most certainly L. petersii, since it is the only member of the complex that occurs within the forests in the areas sampled by Hero (1990). The only morphologically differences between the tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) and those herein characterized is the e tail tip rounded, the sloped snout in lateral viewand the seemingly anteroventral oral disc (Hero 1990). Tadpoles from Peru differ from those herein characterized by having nostril just nearer to eye or midway between eye and snout, oral disc subterminal, marginal papillae uniseriate anteriorly and biseriate lateroventrally, or uniseriate anteriorly and posteriorly and biseriate laterally (Heyer 1994); and by presenting snout bluntly rounded in lateral view, spiracle directed posterodorsally, vent tube dextral, tail tip rounded, oral disc directed anteroventrally, row of marginal papillae uniseriate, LTRF 2 (2) / 2 (1) or 2 (2) / 3 [1] (Duellman 2005).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9DFFB6E0D054FB8E70FC15.taxon	description	External morphology. Description based on five tadpoles at Stage 37 (INPA-H 15850). Total length 50.7 ± 1.2 mm (N = 5). Body elongate oval in dorsal view and globular / depressed in lateral view (Fig. 60 A, B). Snout sloping in dorsal and lateral views. Eyes small, dorsally positioned and dorsolaterally directed. Nostrils small, oval, dorsolaterally positioned near to snout, with opening anterolaterally directed, without a projection on the marginal rim. Oral disc (Fig. 60 C) anteroventral, non-emarginate; marginal papillae conical, uniseriate and alternate, with a dorsal gap. Submarginal papillae present laterally and lateroventrally. LTRF 2 (2) / 3; A 1 and A 2 of the same length; P 1, P 2 and P 3 nearly the same length. Jaw sheaths moderately wide, finely serrated; anterior jaw sheath arch-shaped, posterior jaw sheath V-shaped. Spiracle single, sinistral, conical, short and wide, posterodorsally directed, opening in the medial third of the body, with the centripetal wall fused to the body wall and longer than the external wall. Vent tube medial, fused to the ventral fin, with a medial opening. As typical to tadpoles of L. pentadactylus group, tail long, corresponding to about 66 % of total length; caudal musculature of moderate width; in lateral view gradually tapering to a pointed tip. Dorsal fin shallow, originating at the tail-body junction, convex; ventral fin shallow, convex. Tail tip pointed. Lateral lines visible. Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown; venter lighter; fins transparent pale black (Rodrigues et al. 2007). In life body and caudal musculature black; venter bluish or dark brown; fins translucent black (Rodrigues et al. 2007). Metamorph. Dorsum reddish brown with one dorsolateral stripe per side; there are transversal dark stripes between the eyes and at the level of arms; anterior lip with a broad white or creamy stripe; groin and posterior surface of the thighs black with small greenish yellow or creamy spots (Fig. 60 D). Natural history. Foam nests deposited between shrubs, roots, and fallen tree trunks near to ponds; tadpoles reach the pond after rainfall floods the nest (Rodrigues et al. 2007). Clutches contained 247 and 290 eggs (Rodrigues et al. 2007). Tadpoles are benthic. Tadpoles are observed during the rainy season. Tadpoles of L. rhodomystax are voracious predators of conspecific and heterospecific amphibian eggs and tadpoles (Rodrigues et al. 2007). In experiments tadpoles of L. rhodomystax were preyed upon by fish (Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9DFFB6E0D054FB8E70FC15.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpole of L. rhodomystax were described from Ecuador (Duellman 1978) and Central Amazonia (Hero 1990; Rodrigues et al. 2007). The description of Duellman (1978) is based on a single individual in Stage 25 tentatively identified as L. rhodomystax. Tadpole drawed by Hero (1990) differs from those herein characterized by presenting nostrils positioned at midway between eyes and the snout tip, and biseriate marginal papillae row. Tadpoles described by Rodrigues et al. (2007) differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view, and submarginal papillae laterally and posteriorly.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9FFFB4E0D052BB8994FDBD.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature dark brown; fins opaque brown. In life body and tail black; internal organs are not visible through the body wall (Lima 1992); body dark grey, tail lighter than body, fins translucent. Variation. Prior to Stage 37, body black but the internal organs are visible; fins transparent (Lima 1992). Natural history: Foam nests are deposited in the margins of streamside ponds in terra-firme forest; tadpoles move to the ponds through tunnels excavated by their parents (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are benthic and remain hidden in particulate matter in the substrate. Clutches contain about 1,000 eggs (Lima et al. 2012).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9FFFB4E0D052BB8994FDBD.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of L. riveroi from Central Amazonia were described by Lima (1992), and they differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view (although Fig. 1 shows an elongate oval body), and dorsal and ventral fins narrow. MICROHYLIDAE. Tadpoles of the Microhylidae occurring in Central Amazonia belong to four genera and are characterized by the following characteristics: small size; nostrils absent; absence of oral keratinized parts (LTRF 0 / 0); spiracle positioned ventrally; free-swimming tadpoles (except Synapturanus). Genus Chiasmocleis. Tadpoles of genus Chiasmocleis found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: body ovoid in dorsal view and triangular / depressed in lateral view; tail fins of moderate height; vent tube dextral; mouth terminal with fleshy lips covering the oral opening.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9EFF8BE0D050A38EB2FC5D.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum transparent brown with dark melanophores, venter whitish with melanophores on the anterior part; caudal musculature light brown; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with melanophores (Rodrigues et al. 2008). In life dorsum transparent brown or orange, venter whitish and tail transparent (Rodrigues et al. 2008). Variation. External nostrils no perforated and dorsally positioned, consisting of a rounded whitish spot at Stages 41, 42 and 44 (Rodrigues et al. 2008). Metamorphs. Dorsum reddish brown with small white spots; one silver stripe from the snout to the dorsolateral region. Natural history. Eggs are deposited amid roots in the soil or in fallen tree trunks near streamside or isolated ponds in terra-firme forests; tadpoles hatch at stages 26 and 27 and reach the pond after rainfall floods the nest (Rodrigues et al. 2008). Clutches contain about 350 eggs (Rodrigues et al. 2008). Tadpoles are found in the rainy season. In experiments tadpoles of C. hudsoni were preyed upon by dragonflies and fish (Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFF9EFF8BE0D050A38EB2FC5D.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of Chiasmocleis hudsoni from Central Amazonia were illustrated as C. cf. ventrimaculata by Hero (1990), and described as C. hudsoni by Rodrigues et al. (2008). These tadpoles differ from those herein characterized by presenting a spiracle that does not projected on the vent tube (Hero 1990), and a vent tube positioned along the ventral midline (Hero 1990; Rodrigues et al. 2008).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA1FF8AE0D051838957FD75.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature with dark melanophores, venter whitish with scattered melanophores on anterior part; fins translucent with few melanophores. In life dorsum greenish, venter whitish, tail fins translucent; tail muscle greenish with melanophores up to half its length; posterior third of tail muscle whitish (Menin et al. 2011 b). Variation. External nostrils no perforated and dorsally positioned, consisting of a rounded whitish spot at the Stage 43; projections of the spiracle are visible at Stages 25 to 35 and are reduced at Stages 36 to 38 (Menin et al. 2011 b). Natural history. Clutches contain about 230 eggs and are laid on the water surface (Lima et al. 2012) in isolated temporary ponds in terra-firme forests (Menin et al. 2011 b). Tadpoles are found in most months of the year.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA1FF8AE0D051838957FD75.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of C. shudikarensis from Central Amazonia were illustrated by Hero (1990) and described by Menin et al. (2011 b). Tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a noticeable constriction in the posterior third of the body in dorsal view, and a short spiracle that does not reach the vent tube. Tadpoles herein characterized are similar to those described by Menin et al. (2011 b). Genus Ctenophryne. Only one species of Ctenophryne is found in the Central Amazon.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA0FF89E0D050FC89AFFC30.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature with dark melanophores, venter whitish with scattered melanophores on the anterior part; fins translucent. In life body transparent; tail orange with black margins (according to Menin et al. 2011 b this species was erroneously identified as Chiasmocleis cf. shudikarensis in Hero 1990). Natural history. Clutches contain from 520 to 610 eggs (Schl ̧ ter & Salas 1991; Lima et al. 2012). Eggs are deposited in shallow depressions near ponds (Schl ̧ ter & Salas 1991; Lima et al. 2012); tadpoles are found in isolated temporary ponds in terra-firme forests.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA0FF89E0D050FC89AFFC30.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of C. geayi from Peru were described by Schl ̧ ter & Salas (1991) and by Duellman (2005). Tadpoles from Panguana Biological Research Station differ from those herein characterized by presenting body depressed (although Fig. 6 shows a tadpole with a globular body in lateral view), dorsal fin not extending onto body, and tail tip rounded (Schl ̧ ter & Salas 1991). Tadpoles from the southeastern lowlands of Peru tentatively assigned to C. geayi, mostly because of the orange tail fins, differ from those herein characterized by presenting dorsal fin originating on the tail (or on the tail-body junction according to Fig. 13.11 B) and much higher dorsal and ventral fins (also in accordance to Figure 13.11 B; Duellman 2005). Genus Elachistocleis. Only one species of Elachistocleis is found in the Central Amazon.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA3FF88E0D05637882CFC81.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum and caudal musculature brown; venter lighter, grayish brown; fins translucent; caudal musculature and fins with irregular large brown patches. Natural history. Clutches contain about 1,400 eggs and are laid on the water surface (Lima et al. 2012). Tadpoles are found in temporary ponds in open areas; tadpoles remain in the water column and eat suspended particles (Lima et al. 2012).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA3FF88E0D05637882CFC81.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of E. helianneae were described by Dias-Souza et al. (2019) from northern Amazonia, Amapá, Brazil. They differ from those herein characterized by presenting body elongate oval in dorsal view, and snout rounded in dorsal and lateral views. Genus Synapturanus. Tadpoles of genus Synapturanus found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: body ovoid in dorsal view and globular in lateral view; spiracle absent; tail fins shallow; vent tube absent; spiracle absent; oral disc absent; oral aperture as a simple terminal slit.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA2FF8FE0D051A68FB9FC5C.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum greyish tan and venter cream or yellowish cream; chromatophores distributed on the head, dorsal region of the body and on dorsal surfaces of the limbs and anterior region of the tail (Menin et al. 2007). In life head and dorsum reddish-brown, lightening laterally, with a mottled brown pattern on the flanks and limbs; venter white to cream; tail fins transparent; caudal musculature light brown (Menin et al. 2007). Variation. Fins retained or vestigial in Stage 42. Metamorphs. With brown coloration with numerous light cream to orange spots dorsally over the dorsum, arms and legs (Menin et al. 2007). Natural history. Clutches contain on average 8 creamy eggs (Menin et al. 2007). Eggs are deposited in burrows about 5 - 10 cm below the soil surface in terra-firme forests; development is endotrophic and tadpoles hatch at Stage 42 (Menin et al. 2007).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA2FF8FE0D051A68FB9FC5C.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. ajuricaba from Central Amazonia were described as Synapturanus cf. salseri by Menin et al. (2007). The only difference in relation to tadpoles herein characterized is the body considered depressed in lateral view by Menin et al. (2007).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA5FF8EE0D051838918FBCD.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum greyish and venter cream; chromatophores distributed on the head, dorsal region of the body and on dorsal surfaces of the hind limbs and forelimbs (Menin et al. 2007). In life head and dorsum reddish-brown becoming brighter laterally, with a mottled brown pattern on the flanks and limbs; venter white to cream; tail fins transparent; caudal musculature light brown (Menin et al. 2007). Metamorphs. With brown dorsum, flanks comparatively brighter and a mottled brown pattern on the flanks and limbs (Menin et al. 2007). Natural history. Clutches contain from 5 to 9 creamy eggs (Menin et al. 2007). Eggs are deposited in burrows about 5 - 10 cm below the soil surface in terra-firme forests; development is endotrophic and tadpoles hatch at Stage 42 (Menin et al. 2007).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA5FF8EE0D051838918FBCD.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of S. mirandaribeiroi from Central Amazonia were illustrated as S. mirandaribeiroi / S. salseri by Hero (1990) and described by Menin et al. (2007). Tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein characterized by presenting a pointed tail tip. No morphological variation was detected between tadpoles herein characterized and those described by Menin et al. (2007). PHYLLOMEDUSIDAE. Tadpoles of the phyllomedusid species occurring in Central Amazonia belong to two genera with free-swimming tadpoles. The morphology of these tadpoles is very similar. Genus Callimedusa. Only one species of Callimedusa is found in Central Amazon.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA4FF8DE0D056138EF8FA21.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body whitish or grayish brown; venter opaque; caudal musculature whitish cream; fins translucent with diffuse melanic pattern. In life body transparent olive or whitish with a silver venter; tail transparent or whitish with a diffuse orange patch midway along the lower fin (Hero 1990). Variation. LTRF 2 (2) / 3 or 2 (2) / 3 (1) at Stage 38. Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a gelatinous mass in leaf nests overhanging isolated or streamside ponds in terra-firme forests; upon hatching tadpoles fall in the water (Lima et al. 2012). Mean clutch size is 63 unpigmented eggs (Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004). Tadpoles are found in all months of the year. Tadpoles are nektonic. Eggs are preyed upon by phorid fly larvae and staphylinid beetles (Neckel-Oliveira 2004; Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004). Tadpoles are preyed upon by Pipa arrabali (Buchacher 1993). In experiments tadpoles of C. tomopterna were consumed by dragonflies and fish (Gascon 1989 b, 1992 a; Hero 1991).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA4FF8DE0D056138EF8FA21.taxon	discussion	Comments. Tadpoles of C. tomopterna were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, by Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia and by Duellman (2005) from Peru. Tadpoles from Ecuador differ from those herein characterized only by the presence of biseriate marginal papillae row (Duellman 1978). Those from Peru differ from those herein characterized by presenting s nout rounded in lateral view, oral disc terminal without emarginations, LTRF varying between 2 (2) / 3 (as tadpoles herein described) and 2 (2 - 3) / 3, and a single irregular row of marginal papillae (although Fig. 13.14 B shows marginal papillae row uniseriate posteriorly and biseriate anterolaterally; Duellman 2005). No morphological difference was observed between the tadpoles herein characterized and those illustrated in Hero (1990) as Phyllomedusa tomopterna. Genus Phyllomedusa. Tadpoles of genus Phyllomedusa found in the Central Amazonia share the following combination of morphological characteristics: moderate to large size; body elongated oval in dorsal view and depressed in lateral view; dorsal fin shallow, ventral fin high; oral disc anteroventral, ventrally emarginate; marginal papillae uniseriate with a dorsal gap; submarginal papillae present; LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (1).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA7FF83E0D054068EBBFD75.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum brownish gray; lateral side of body and belly gray; caudal musculature and the cord pale brown; fins translucent. In life dorsum and anterior part of the body orange; venter silver; caudal musculature with the unique cord pale orange; fins translucent orange; iris silver (Fig. 69 D) (Pinto et al. 2013). Variation. LTRF 1 (1) / 2 (1) at Stage 24, 2 (2) / 3 (1) or 2 (2) / 3 (1 - 2) at Stages 26, 27, 29 and 34 (Pinto et al. 2013). Metamorph. At metamorphosis froglets light grey, nearly white, with orange reflections over dorsum and flanks; sides of limbs and toes orange (Fig. 69 E); later, body and limbs green with the presence of sparse white spots with dark outlines on the chest and hind limbs (Pinto et al. 2013). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a gelatinous mass in leaf nests overhanging isolated or streamside temporary ponds in terra-firme forest and forest edge; upon hatching tadpoles fall in the water (Lima et al. 2012; Pinto et al. 2013). Mean clutch size is 859 unpigmented eggs (Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004). Tadpoles are found in all months of the year. Tadpoles are nektonic. Eggs are preyed upon by phorid fly larvae, staphylinid beetles and capuchin monkeys (Neckel-Oliveira 2004; Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004). Tadpoles are preyed upon by Pipa arrabali (Buchacher 1993). In experiments tadpoles of P. bicolor were consumed by dragonflies and fish (Hero 1991). The bright orange color is presumably aposematic.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA7FF83E0D054068EBBFD75.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were described by Rada de Martinez (1990) from Venezuela, from Colombia by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011), and by Hero (1990) and Pinto et al. (2013) from Central Amazonia. Tadpoles from Venezuela differ from those herein characterized by the absence of submarginal papillae (although Fig. 9 clearly shows submarginal papillae laterally on oral disc, as those herein characterized; Rada de Martinez 1990). Tadpoles illustrated by Hero (1990) and by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) differ from those herein characterized for lacking a ventrally emarginate oral disc and submarginal papillae, which drove Pinto et al. (2013) to conclude that the tadpole illustrated in Hero (1990) is not P. bicolor. No morphological variation was observed between tadpoles herein characterized and those described by Pinto et al. (2013).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA9FF82E0D050FB8DC7FC31.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative dorsum light greyish brown; caudal musculature grayish brown; fins translucent. In life body transparent olive or whitish with a silver venter; tail transparent or whitish (Hero 1990) (Fig. 70 D). Body silvery, caudal musculature pinkish, ventral fin with a black patch of variable width in the middle third of the tail. Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a gelatinous mass in leaf nests overhanging isolated ponds in terra-firme forest, forest edge and deforested land; upon hatching tadpoles hatch and fall in the water (Neckel-Oliveira 2004; Lima et al. 2012). Mean clutch size is 342 unpigmented eggs (Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004) Tadpoles are nektonic and form schools (Duellman 1978). Tail tip is capable of independent movement (Fig. 70 D). Tadpoles are found in all months of the year. Eggs are preyed upon by phorid fly larvae, staphylinid beetles and the snake Leptodeira annulata (Martins & Oliveira 1998; Neckel-Oliveira 2004; Neckel-Oliveira & Wachlevski 2004). In experiments tadpoles of P. tarsius were consumed by dragonflies and fish (Hero 1991; Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1992).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA9FF82E0D050FB8DC7FC31.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador and illustrated by Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia. They differ from those herein characterized by presenting body ovoid in dorsal view, eyes large, oral disc without lateral emarginations, row of marginal papillae uniseriate laterally and biseriate ventrally, LTRF 2 (2) / 3 (Duellman 1978); and by presenting LTRF 2 (2) / 2 - 3 [1], and anterior jaw sheat arch-shaped (Hero 1990).	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA8FF60E0D056378E2AFC15.taxon	description	Colour. In preservative body and caudal musculature brownish-light orange; dorsum with a black mark between the eyes; fins translucent. In life body transparent orange with a silver venter; tail transparent orange (Hero 1990); a distinct black mark between the eyes (Caramaschi & Jim 1983) (Fig. 71 D). Metamorphs. At metamorphosis froglets are light grey, nearly white, with orange reflections over dorsum and flanks; venter whitish cream; sides of limbs and toes orange; there is a faint black mark between the eyes and an intermittent glandular dorsolateral line from behind the eyes to the midbody (Fig. 71 E). Natural history. Eggs are deposited in a gelatinous mass in leaf nests overhanging isolated ponds in streamside terra-firme forest ponds; upon hatching tadpoles hatch and fall in the water (Neckel-Oliveira 2004; Lima et al. 2012). Gravid females contain from 635 to 1,114 ovarian eggs (H ̂ dl 1990; Aichinger 1992). Tadpoles aggregate by size forming polarized schools (Branch 1983). P. vaillanti was observed surface feeding, suspension feeding and rasping surfaces and had phytoplankton, periphyton and detritus as gut contents (Branch 1983). In experiments P. vaillanti tadpoles were avoided as prey by all fish species tested (Hero 1991); the bright orange color is likely aposematic.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
B31987BBFFA8FF60E0D056378E2AFC15.taxon	discussion	Comments. These tadpoles were described by Duellman (1978) from Ecuador, by Caramaschi & Jim (1983) from Southwestern Amazonia, Hero (1990) from Central Amazonia and by Duellman (2005) from Peru. Tadpoles from Central Amazonia (Hero 1990), Ecuador (Duellman 1978) and Peru (Duellman 2005) differ from those herein characterized by presenting biseriate marginal papillae row, at least posteriorly on oral disc. Those illustrated by Hero (1990) differ from those herein by presenting LRTF 2 (2) / 2 - 3 (1), and those from Ecuador (Duellman 1978) and Peru (Duellman 2005) differ by presenting the first posterior tooth row undivided [LRTF 2 (2) / 3]. Tadpoles from southwestern Amazonia differ from those herein characterized by presenting body pyriform in dorsal view, dorsal fin originating at the body-tail junction, and a row of marginal papillae biseriate (Caramaschi & Jim 1983). Although the authors mentioned the presence of only a dorsal gap, Fig. 4 shows an oral disc with a short ventral gap, which differs from all other descriptions, included those herein. Tadpoles from Peru (Duellman 2005) also differ from those herein characterized by presenting snout rounded and dorsally prominent in lateral view, and dorsal fin originating on proximal caudal musculature. There is no morphological variaton between tadpoles from Colombia illustrated by Lynch & Suárez-Mayorga (2011) and those herein characterized. Reproductive modes and premetamorphic development Source of nourishment in premetamorphic development. Altig & Johnston (1989) consider that the source of nutrition for embryos and larvae is a basal dichotomy in anuran biology. Early embryonic development is supported by yolk allocated to the egg during vitellogenesis. In the majority of anuran species, however, the amount of yolk is insufficient to support the entire premetamorphic development. After the yolk is exhausted tadpoles consume a variety of food items taken from the environment, a condition termed exotrophy (Altig & Johnston 1989; see´Species Interactions / Food’). Among the 99 Central Amazonian anuran species, 85 species (i. e., 86 %) are obligate exotrophic (see Table 1; also Fig. 72 for a developmental series of Osteocephalus taurinus, a typical exotrophic larva). In some cases, however, the entire embryo-larval development is supported by nutrients from parental sources, most often yolk. This category, termed endotrophic (Altig & Johnston 1989), is observed in species with a range of larval morphotypes, from typical tadpoles to modified forms, and represents, for several lineages, a crucial step for a decreased dependence on the aquatic environment. Among Central Amazonian anurans, 13 species (13 %) have complete endotrophic development (Table 1). Two species (Pipa pipa, P. arrabali) are aquatic in the sense that they develop from eggs embedded in the dorsum of the aquatic female, hatching directly into froglets. Another 11 species are fully terrestrial (Table 1). These terrestrial endotrophic anurans have different degrees of reduction of structures associated with feeding, swimming and respiration. Allobates nidicola, Anomaloglossus stepheni, Adenomera andreae, A. hylaedactyla, Synapturanus ajuricaba and S. mirandaribeiroi retain some vestiges of aquatic larval features. In contrast Pristimantis cf. marmoratus, P. fenestratus, P. ockendeni, P. zimmermanae and Phyzelaphryne sp. all have embryos that develop directly into froglets (see Fig. 72 for a developmental series of P. fenestratus). Reproductive modes. Reproductive modes are defined as a combination of traits including oviposition site, ovum and clutch characteristics, rate and duration of development, stage and size of hatchling, and type of parental care (if any). They are important and diverse components of amphibian biology (Duellman & Trueb 1986; but see Wells 2007 for a critique). There are currently 39 reproductive modes described for anurans (Haddad & Prado 2005). From these, we recognize 16 reproductive modes in Central Amazonian anurans, corresponding to 73 % of all reproductive modes known for Amazonia and 41 % of all reproductive modes known for the world (Haddad & Prado 2005). These reproductive modes, numbered according to Haddad & Prado (2005), are listed in Table 1. Among the 62 species with fully aquatic premetamorphic development, we recognize seven reproductive modes (Fig. 73). Forty-eight species present the most typical pattern of development comprising aquatic eggs and exotrophic aquatic larvae in surface water bodies — 45 of them in lentic water bodies (mode 1), two in lotic water bodies (mode 2), and one (Boana geographica) in both lentic and lotic water bodies. Five other species have eggs, embryos and exotrophic tadpoles that develop in lentic water bodies, but either spend their early development in a waterfilled basin constructed by the male adjacent to a larger water body (Boana boans, B. wavrini; mode 4) or develop in phytotelmata. These phytotelmata-dependent taxa include Osteocephalus oophagus in water-filled bromeliads, tree holes and buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa) leaf axils; and Trachycephalus cunauaru and T. resinifictrix in spacious waterfilled treeholes; mode 6). Five other species construct foam nests on the water surface (Leptodactylus leptodactyloides, L. macrosternum, L. riveroi; L. wagneri, Lithodytes lineatus; mode 11) or in water accumulated in constructed basins (Leptodactylus labyrinthicus, L. podicipinus; mode 13) with subsequent development of exotrophic tadpoles in the adjacent larger water body. Finally, Pipa spp. are fully aquatic (mode 16). Among the 23 species with semiterrestrial premetamorphic development (i. e., eggs terrestrial, larvae aquatic), we recognize seven reproductive modes. Six species oviposit in the leaf litter and, upon hatching, the tadpoles are transported to a temporary pond on the back of the adult (four species of Allobates and both species of Ameerega; mode 20). One species lays eggs in roots overhanging lentic water (Amazophrynella manaos; mode 18). Eight species lay eggs in leaves overhanging lentic water (Allophyrne ruthveni; Dendropsophus cf. brevifrons, D. leucophyllatus, D. triangulum, Callimedusa tomopterna, Phyllomedusa bicolor, P. tarsius and P. vaillanti; mode 24) and two species lay eggs in leaves overhanging streams (Hyalinobatrachium iaspidiense and Vitreorana ritae; mode 25). In all cases, at hatching tadpoles fall in the water, where they complete exotrophic development. Finally, two species construct foam nests on the humid forest floor (Leptodactlys petersii, L. rhodomystax; mode 28), one in basins (Leptodactylus knudseni; mode 29) and two in burrows (Leptodactylus fuscus, L. longirostris; mode 30) adjacent to ponds. Rising water levels following rain flood the nest, and exotrophic tadpoles complete development in the pond. At least one Central Amazonian species with semiterrestrial premetamorphic development displays plastic oviposition behavior; i. e., Leptodactylus mystaceus deposits its eggs in foam nests either on the humid forest floor, in a basin, or in a subterranean constructed nest adjacent to a larger water body (modes 28, 29 and 30). At last, among the 13 species with fully terrestrial development we recognize three reproductive modes. Two species have foam nests in subterranean constructed chambers with endotrophic tadpoles completing development in the nest. These are Adenomera andreae and A. hylaedactyla (mode 32). Four species lay eggs in the forest floor, either in the leaf litter (i. e., Anomaloglossus stepheni, Allobates nidicola) or underground (i. e., Synapturanus ajuricaba, S. mirandaribeiroi), where eggs hatch into endotrophic tadpoles that complete development in the nest (mode 21). Five species have direct development of terrestrial eggs; these are all four species of Pristimantis, and Phyzelaphryne (mode 23; see Fig. 72). Leptodactylus pentadactylus in Central Amazonia has a fully terrestrial development in foam nests in subterranean constructed chambers that may (Marcelo Menin pers. obs.) or may not (Hero & Galatti 1990) contain water. Tadpoles are too large (max. total length 80 mm; Hero & Galatti 1990) to be exclusively sustained by yolk, and they were found to contain eggs in their guts (Marcelo Menin, pers. obs.), and to be voracious egg predators (Magnusson & Hero 1991). We hypothesize that completion of development requires the regular deposition of eggs by the mother, as recently demonstrated for Leptodactylus fallax in captivity. To the best of our knowledge, a reproductive mode with terrestrial exotrophic tadpoles developing in subterranean constructed chambers has not been described and should be identified as a distinct reproductive mode. Leptodactylus stenodema may present the same reproductive mode of L. pentadactylus. However, despite considerable effort at locating and following burrows occupied by calling Leptodactylus stenodema, we were unable to locate eggs and tadpoles. Analyzing by macrohabitat, diversity of reproductive modes is far greater in terra-firme forests (16) than in várzea (7) and igapó flooded forests (2). Notable is the scarcity of semiterrestrial and the complete lack of terrestrial modes of reproduction in flooded forests. Several hypotheses have been postulated for the selective forces shaping the diversity of reproductive modes and, in particular, for the evolution of terrestriality in amphibians (Wells 2007). These include reduced risk of being carried away by current in swift streams and of dessication in drying ponds, reduced intensity of interspecific competition among tadpoles in the water body, and also the predation pressure on eggs and larvae developing in water bodies. A reduced risk of dessication in drying ponds is an unlikely explanation for a trend towards terrestriality because in humid forested habitats the risk of desiccation is low. Moreover, the diversity and prevalence of semiterrestrial and terrestrial reproductive modes is high, since the most important constraint to terrestrial eggs and larvae, evaporative water loss, is relaxed. Avoidance of aquatic predators of eggs and larvae has been repeatedly proposed. In an insightful study conduct- ed in the Central Amazon, Magnusson & Hero (1991) found that several species of tadpoles and dytiscid beetles, but not fish, were voracious predators of aquatic amphibian eggs (see´Species Interactions´). They also found that in any given water body the percentage of species with terrestrial oviposition was positively correlated with a general index of egg predation pressure, in turn negatively correlated with fish biomass. The authors interpreted these results as if terrestrial oviposition is maintained, and perhaps evolved, as a strategy to avoid predation, even though not fish predation, in the water body. Habitat use Central Amazonian amphibians clearly exhibit differential patterns of space use at the scales of macrohabitat (i. e., among major physiognomies), habitat (i. e., among water bodies) and microhabitat (i. e., within water bodies). Distributional patterns at macrohabitat scale. Taking into consideration that more research has been devoted to the study of terra-firme forest faunas than várzea and igapó flooded forest faunas, we recognize 67 species in terra-firme forests, 28 in várzea flooded forests and four in igapó flooded forests (Table 1). Among the 67 species occurring in terra-firme forests, 61 are exclusive to this macrohabitat, six are shared with várzea flooded forests and one with igapó flooded forests. Among the 28 species occurring in várzea flooded forests, eighteen are exclusive to this macrohabitat, four are shared with igapó flooded forests and six with terra-firme forests. Finally, of the four species found in igapó flooded forests, three are shared with terra-firme forests and all four with várzea flooded forests. Few species are wide generalists with respect to macrohabitat use; Rhinella marina and Scinax ruber stand out as occurring from the margins of large rivers to upland forests and both in open areas and closed-canopy forest edge. At least 21 species are regularly found in forest edge and / or deforested land (Table 1). Six of them are typically forest species (A. femoralis, A. sumtuosus, O. taurinus, P. bicolor, P. tarsius, L. knudseni), 11 are typical of open areas and do not penetrate or are only rarely found inside the forest (Rhinella merianae, R. marina, Boana lanciformis, Scinax garbei, S. cf. ruber, Trachycephalus typhonius, Leptodactylus fuscus, L. macrosternum, L. longirostris, L. podicipinus, and Elachistocleis helianneae), and five occur in both (Dendropsophus minutus, B. boans, B. geographica, S. cruentomma, L. mystaceus), but are usually more abundant in disturbed habitats. Distributional patterns at the habitat scale. Terra-firme forests. In terra-firme forests, aquatic exotrophic amphibian larvae clearly segregate habitat among different types of water bodies (H ̂ dl 1990; Rodrigues et al. 2010; Table 2). Considering the 53 species occurring in terra-firme forests (i. e., excluding forest edge), 23 species occur in isolated forest ponds, 31 in streamside ponds, nine in forest streams, and five in phytotelmata (numbers do not add up because certain species occur in more than one habitat; Table 2). The first evident axis of habitat segregation is water flow. Forty-three of 53 (81 %) terra-firme species are exclusively lentic. By contrast, only three species (6 %) are stream specialists (Atelopus manauensis, Boana boans and Osteocephalus cabrerai). One, possibly two, species (2 – 4 %) are primarily stream dwellers occasionally found in streamside ponds (the centrolenids Vitreorana ritae and, by extension, Hyalinobatrachium iaspidiense whose tadpole is unknown; but note that tadpoles are fossorial and therefore avoid the water current). Finally, Boana geographica, B. cinerascens, Osteocephalus taurinus, Phyllomedusa vaillantii and P. bicolor (5 species or 9 %) are more typical of lentic water bodies, but may be washed from streamside ponds by heavy rains or colonize lowcurrent stream sections. As pointed out by Gascon (1991), the poorness of the lotic tadpole assemblage in Central Amazonia probably results from the lack of morphological specializations for life in fast-flowing water for most tadpole species, and predation by fish. This is a proximal explanation, though. An ultimate explanation appears to include a strong component of historical biogeography as Southeast Asian amphibian faunas display a contrasting pattern, with about half of the species reproducing in streams (Inger et al. 1986; Strauss et al. 2010, 2013; Zimmerman & Simberloff 1996). Linked to these historical effects, the mountainous topography provides a variety of lotic flow regimes (e. g., Inger et al. 1986; Strauβ et al. 2013) that may have contributed to a higher prevalence of streamassociated amphibian species in Southeast Asia. The second axis of habitat segregation is that comprehending the 48 lentic or predominantly lentic species, which segregate habitat between arboreal and surface water bodies, on one hand, and between isolated forest ponds and streamside ponds, on another. In the first group, three species are phytotelmata specialists that are never found in surface water. Osteocephalus oophagus is found in ground or epiphytic bromeliads, burití palm leaf axils (Mauritia flexuosa), waterfilled fallen palm bracts or treeholes (Jungfer & Schiesari 1995). Trachycephalus resinifictrix and T. cunauaru occur in spacious water-filled treeholes in the forest canopy (Schiesari et al. 2003 a; Gordo et al. 2013). Allobates femoralis and A. sumtuosus are listed as facultatively phytotelmonous because these species have been found in fallen palm leaves or fallen logs accumulating water. Note that the definition of phytotelm includes any plant or part of plant that holds water, independent of height above ground or volume. The second group comprises the 45 species occurring exclusively or predominantly in surface lentic water bodies. Among the 45 species occurring exclusively or predominantly in ponds, 12 species occur exclusively in isolated forest ponds (here including peccary wallows; Gascon 1991), nineteen species occur exclusively in streamside ponds, and 10 species occur in both habitats (Table 2). As one might expect, despite the very high diversity observed at the landscape level, the number of species actually found in a water body in any given moment is much lower. For example, mean number of species per water body was 4.7 in isolated forest ponds and peccary wallows, 1.6 in streamside pools and 0.4 species in streams (average across two sampling years; Gascon 1991). A similar pattern of species richness was found in other ecosystems in Brazil. For example, of 20 species in the Atlantic Forest, the mean number of species per water body was 3.1 in isolated ponds and 1.3 in streams (Jordani et al. 2017). Large rivers and seasonally flooded forests. Less is known about habitat use in large rivers and seasonally flooded forests. Few species breed and develop in the open waters of large rivers and lakes. Rhinella marina larvae were observed in a lake connected to the Rio Negro in Central Amazonia (LS pers. obs.), and in Eastern Amazonia R. merianae bred more frequently in the Tapajós river, a large clear water river, and associated lakes than in ponds and puddles (Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1999). Surprisingly, amplectant pairs of R. merianae were found to swim up to 750 m inside the Tapajós river to lay eggs (Magnusson & Windle 1986). Boana wavrini breeds in water-filled nests excavated by the male at the margins of igapó and várzea lakes, rivers and streams; tadpoles swim into the lake water when the nest is flooded by the rising water levels. In eastern Amazonia, B. wavrini tadpoles were found in shallow pools and in the shallow margins of a lake connected to the Trombetas river (Martins & Moreira 1991). By contrast, several species breed and develop in protected biotopes of large rivers and lakes. In várzea floodplains, specifically, extensive macrophyte stands form seasonally along the margins and banks of the nutrient-rich, white-water rivers and lakes (known as´floating meadows´; H ̂ dl 1977; Junk et al. 1989; B ̂ ning et al. 2017). Nineteen species of anurans, all of which with aquatic tadpoles, call and breed in the floating meadows. The structurally complex root zone of floating meadows, and the very high primary productivity of aquatic grasses, presumably provide shelter and abundant detritus for the tadpoles (Schiesari et al. 2003 b). Our collections confirmed the occurrence of larvae of Boana raniceps, Lysapsus bolivianus, Dendropsophus haraldschultzi, D. leucophyllatus, D. marmoratus, D. walfordi, Scarthyla goinorum, Sphaenorhynchus carneus, S. dorisae, S. lacteus, and two species of Scinax in the root zone of floating meadows. Amazonian floodplains present a variety of temporary water bodies. In Alter do Ch „ o 600 km east of Manaus, Azevedo-Ramos et al. (1999) sampled 40 water bodies ranging from shallow puddles to lakes connected to the Tapajós river. Thirteen tadpole species were found, 10 of which also occur in Central Amazonia by current taxonomic standards. Five species occurred exclusively in temporary water bodies (Scinax ruber, Physalaemus ephippifer, Leptodactylus knudseni, L. macrosternum, and´Hyla sp. 2´). Three species occurred exclusively in permanent water bodies (Boana boans, B. wavrini,´Hyla sp. 1´), and five occurred in both temporary and permanent water bodies (Rhinella marina, R. major, Boana raniceps, Lysapsus bolivianus, Leptodactylus fuscus). As in terra-firme forests, alpha diversity was much lower than gamma diversity: even if the 40 water bodies contained altogether 13 species, mean number of species per water body was only 1.6, ranging from 1 to 7 (Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1999). Distributional patterns at the microhabitat scale. Clearly differentiating interspecific microhabitat use is challenging due to both variation in individual behavioral responses (i. e., generalism, opportunism, and behavioral plasticity) and variation in habitat structural complexity (i. e., many anuran species occur in small, shallow bodies of water lacking vegetation cover where vertical habitat use differentiation is meaningless). Nevertheless, natural history observations coupled with morphological inferences suggest that there is some level of differential microhabitat use by Central Amazonian tadpoles. These will be dealt with below in´Ecomorphological guilds´. Phenology Detailed phenological records of amphibian larvae are available for terra-firme faunas only. A presence-absence analysis of the temporal distribution of anuran eggs, embryos, and larvae in terra-firme forests (Table 3, Figs. 74, 75) evidences a fairly large number of species in every month of the year but with a clear seasonal trend for higher richness in the wet season. Typically, there are over 24 and up to 30 species in November-May as opposed to 17 species in June-September (Fig. 74). Assuming that a species not found in a given month but found in the previous and following months is a false negative (i. e., would be found as embryo or larva with sufficient sampling effort), no less than 11 of 33 tadpole species (33 %) are found in every month of the year (Fig. 75). These include all representatives in genera Allobates, Vitreorana and Phyllomedusa, as well as Boana geographica, B. boans, Osteocephalus taurinus and Leptodactylus knudseni. Another five tadpole species (Amazophrynella manaos, Atelopus manauensis, Boana cinerascens, Osteocephalus cabrerai, and Chiasmocleis shudikarensis) are found in more than nine months of the year. The occurrence of 10 species is strongly tied with the rainy season, including Rhinella merianae, R. proboscidea, Scinax ruber, Trachycephalus resinifictrix, Ceratophrys cornuta, Leptodactylus longirostris, L. mystaceus, L. rhodomystax, and Chiasmocleis hudsoni. Three hylids are restricted to the second half of the rainy season (Dendropsopus minutus, D. sp. of the D. microcephalus group, and D. rossalleni), as appear to be Dendropsophus cf. parviceps and Trachycephalus coriaceus, recorded in a single month each (sensu Wells 1977; Schiesari & Moreira 1996). Only one species, Rhinella marina, is a clear dry season specialist. Two life history strategies could account for such prolonged patterns of larval occurrence. One is prolonged breeding; i. e., reproductive events occurring over many months of the year, probably as an opportunistic response to rain fall, low air pressure, and increased humidity. The other is long larval periods, i. e., long times to metamorphosis. For some taxa both strategies may apply. We have limited knowledge on times to metamorphosis for most species in the region, but calling activity patterns indicate that prolonged breeding is a common reproductive strategy among Central Amazonian frog species (Hero 1991; Gascon 1991). Moreover, long larval periods are unlikely to account for the prolonged patterns of occurrence of 19 species in isolated forest ponds, two species in phytotelmata, and at least part of the 24 species in streamside forest ponds because the water bodies they occur are temporary (cf., Gascon 1991). In conclusion, prolonged patterns of larval occurrence for these 34 species colonizing temporary water bodies likely reflect opportunistic (even if not year-round) breeding. Among species with terrestrial development, Leptodactylus pentadactylus calling activity and the only three clutches found to date occurred in the end of the dry and onset of the wet season (Hero & Galatti 1990; Menin et al. 2010; Faria da Costa et al. 2013). Based on calling activity Adenomera andreae, Pristimantis fenestratus and Synapturanus spp. breed during the wet season with their highest probability of breeding in the beginning and middle of the rainy season (Schiesari 1996; Menin et al. 2008; Rojas-Ahumada & Menin 2010). Only limited information is available regarding the phenology of larval anurans in Amazonian floodplains. Judging from calling sampling surveys conducted by H ̂ dl (1977) in the floating meadows of Lake Janauari, prolonged breeding is common in várzea floodplain species as well. Eight of 15 species called in every one of the 8 months in which sampling occurred; two species called in 7 months, one in 6, one in 5, two in 4 and one in 3 months. Gravid females and / or amplectant pairs of several species were found from January to August. Sampling surveys specifically designed for larval amphibians in floating meadows were conducted by us (Marcelo Menin and David O. C. Telles, unpublished data) in Lake Catal „ o between January and June 2013; the lake was mostly dry before our sampling started. From a total of 12 tadpole species, seven were found in January, 10 in April and seven in June. Boana raniceps and D. walfordi were common throughout the sampling season, especially in January. Dendropsophus haraldschultzi, D. leucophyllatus, Lysapsus bolivianus, Scinax sp. 1 and Leptodactylus leptodactyloides were found throughout the sampling season as well, but always in lower abundances. Tadpoles of Scarthyla goinorum, Scinax garbei, Sphaenorhynchus dorisae and Trachycephalus typhonius were captured only once. In conclusion, a variety of reproductive strategies are found among Central Amazonian frogs, from truly prolonged breeders displaying little or only moderate seasonality to explosive breeders for which a single reproductive event in the late rainy season has ever been recorded (Schiesari & Moreira 1996). Of course, this interpretation should be taken with caution because is based exclusively on presence / absence data. Quantitative data on species abundances will likely reveal interspecific variation in the timing in peaks of abundance and will be essential in furthering our understanding on the importance of species interactions in shaping ecological communities. Species interactions Predators. Both observational and experimental data demonstrate that a wide variety of animals prey upon the eggs, embryos, and larvae of Central Amazonian frogs. Considering eggs deposited out of water (i. e., on the forest floor, in leaves overhanging water, or in foam nests in burrows or depressions), recorded predators include spiders, cockroaches, ephydrid and phorid dipteran larvae, staphylinid beetles, ants, wasps, gymnophthalmid and sphaerodactylid lizards, dypsadid snakes, and even capuchin monkeys (Table 4). There are few records of predators of terrestrial tadpoles undoubtedly due to the difficulty in finding and observing nests of species with terrestrial tadpoles. Their known predators include spiders, cockroaches and wasps. By contrast, many are the predators of aquatic eggs and tadpoles including spiders, aeshnid dragonfly naiads, larval and adult dytiscid beetles, rivulid, lebiasinid, and cichlid fishes, other tadpoles (see´Food´ below), pipid frogs, typhlonectid caecilians, turtles and dipsadid snakes. In addition, hydrophylid beetles and wasps are recorded predators of aquatic eggs, whereas crabs, libellulid dragonfly naiads, and belostomatids are documented predators of aquatic tadpoles (Table 4). The intensity of these predator-prey interactions was addressed by only a few, nevertheless insightful, studies (Hero 1990; Magnusson & Hero 1991; Gascon 1992 a). These studies found that predation on amphibian eggs ranged from nil to very high. Fishes were experimentally found to be unimportant predators of aquatic amphibian eggs in Central Amazonian terra-firme rainforests (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991). The common pond-dwelling lebiasinid fish Pyrrhulina sp. ate no eggs of Boana boans (a total of 220 eggs offered in eleven 12 - hour trials with each individual fish offered 20 eggs), B. geographica (140 eggs offered) and Osteocephalus cabrerai (180 eggs offered). Eggs of O. taurinus were also avoided by Pyrrhulina, considering that only 4 of 120 eggs were consumed. Likewise, the common stream-dwelling cichlid fish Aequidens pallidus ate only 7 eggs of Boana boans (100 eggs offered), 7 of B. geographica (40 eggs offered), and 0 of O. taurinus (100 offered). In strong contrast, Pyrrhulina sp. ate all of the arboreal eggs of Phyllomedusa vaillantii (60 eggs offered; no trials were conducted with A. pallidus). The fact that Pyrrhulina readily ate 100 % of the arboreal eggs, but <1 % of the aquatic eggs suggests that aquatic eggs have adaptations to avoid predation, rather than an experimental artifact (Hero 1991; Magnusson & Hero 1991). This defense mechanism is presumably unpalatability. The intensity of tadpole predation is also highly variable, and the identity and relative importance of the most important predators of larval amphibians differ from that of eggs. Dragonfly naiads, in particular, are not important egg predators but prey voraciously on tadpoles. Gascon (1992 a) found that aeshnid dragonflies were the most effective predators of tadpoles of Osteocephalus taurinus followed by libellulid dragonflies, Pyrrhulina and Rivulus sp. The voracity of aeshnid dragonflies relative to Pyrrhulina over O. taurinus tadpoles was confirmed in a different set of experiments by Gascon (1989 b), who also found that predation rates decline with tadpole size as dragonflies are gape limited predators. Considering multiple species, the importance of dragonfly naiads was further reinforced in no-choice experiments in which the aeshnid Gynacanther preyed between 78 and 100 % of all tadpoles of 10 species offered (Boana boans, B. geographicus, Osteocephalus cabrerai, O. taurinus, Phyllomedusa bicolor, P. tarsius, Amazophrynella manaos, Allobates sumtuosus, Leptodactylus knudseni, and Chiasmocleis hudsoni; Hero 1991). Locomotion patterns appear to be important modulators of predation risk of Amazonian tadpoles against dragonflies. Azevedo-Ramos et al. (1992) recorded distance covered, rapidity and survival times of tadpoles of Boana geographica, Osteocephalus taurinus, Phyllomedusa tarsius and Scinax ruber exposed to Gynacantha membranalis. They found that survival time decreased with distance covered and increased with rapidity (the authors did not measure maneuverability, i. e., angular and linear acceleration, probably more important than velocity at short distances; Hoff & Wassersug 2000). In other words, against these visually-oriented, sit-and-wait dragonfly predators selection appears to favor tadpoles that move infrequently and fast (such as S. ruber), decreasing the naiads’ efficiency in locating and capturing their prey, rather than tadpoles moving slowly and continuously (such as B. geographica, the only species not co-occuring with G. membranalis; Azevedo-Ramos et al. 1992). Interestingly, P. tarsius remains most of the time motionless and perpendicular to the water surface by the continuous, independent beating of the tail tip (Fig. 70 D). Whereas predation by dragonfly naiads appears to be consistently high (at least until a size-refuge from predation is attained, for species that grow sufficiently large), there is wide interspecific variation in tadpole vulnerability to fish predators. As for eggs, it is likely that unpalatability is an important defensive mechanism for tadpoles, which are, relative to fish, poor swimmers in speed. Following a design similar to that employed for testing egg predation rates, Hero (1991) conducted experiments offering tadpoles of 17 species to the fishes Pyrrhulina sp, Rivulus sp. (a rivulid), Erythrinus erythrinus (an erythrinid), and Aequidens pallidus. Three tadpole species (Boana boans, B. geographicus, Phyllomedusa vaillantii) were unpalatable to all fish species tested (that is, less than 20 % of tadpoles offered were eaten). Eight were palatable to some fish predators and unpalatable to others (Amazophrynella manaos, Rhinella merianae, Boana cinerascens, Osteocephalus cabrerai, O. taurinus, Phyllomedusa bicolor, P. tarsius, and Callimedusa tomopterna) and six were moderately to highly palatable (that is, at least 50 % of tadpoles offered were eaten) to all fish species (Allobates sumtuosus, Leptodactylus knudseni, L. rhodomystax, Scinax ruber, Osteocephalus oophagus and Chiasmocleis hudsoni). These were no-choice experiments as Hero (1991) offered tadpole species individually. However, predators exhibit preferences. Gascon (1992 a) compared the predation rates of tadpoles of Osteocephalus taurinus, Allobates femoralis and Callimedusa tomopterna exposed to aeshnid dragonflies, libellulid dragonflies, and the fishes Pyrrhulina sp., Rivulus sp. 1 and Rivulus sp. 2 and found that Callimedusa tomopterna was consistently preferred over O. taurinus and A. femoralis. Compared to naiads and fish, tadpoles are unimportant consumers of other live tadpoles with the possible exceptions of Ceratophrys cornuta, Dendropsophus rossalleni, and Leptodactylus rhodomystax (Table 4). As in other animals, in Central Amazonia tadpole unpalatability may be coupled with a presumably aposematic (warning) coloration. Visually-oriented predators eating distasteful tadpoles with conspicuous coloration would associate the color to the bad taste, and would learn to avoid them after one or some experiences. At least three and possibly four species appear to satisfy these conditions. Rhinella marina and Boana geographica are entirely black and unpalatable to all fish species tested (see Wassersug 1973 for R. marina). Phyllomedusa vaillantii and P. bicolor are bright orange; P. vaillantii is unpalatable to all fish species tested whereas P. bicolo r is unpalatable to some fish species, but not others. The efficiency of a warning coloration is enhanced by the aggregative, schooling behavior of the tadpoles. The large, black tadpoles of Boana geographica form conspicuous schools of up to 3,000 individuals (Caldwell 1989). Two types of schools are performed, moving or stationary: in the typical moving schools, tadpoles in close physical contact with each other form large, rolling spheroid masses moving slowly in the water column. Tadpoles may spread and graze on the bottom, later regrouping. In the stationary schools, tadpoles are aggregated as a single layer at the surface, and alternate periods motionless with periods of swimming towards the center. In both types, individuals continually swim toward the center of the school, which would presumably reduce the individual chances of being preyed. Morevover, this behavior also confers to the entire school a moving, large dark image that could frighten potential predators (Caldwell 1989). The same antipredatory function was attributed to the ameboid, loosely aggregated schools of the black tadpoles of Rhinella marina (Wassersug 1973). A different type of school is performed by the bright orange tadpoles of Phyllomedusa vaillantii. These aggregations resemble fish schools in the regular orientation, spacing and coordination of the individuals, which may be found grazing on the bottom, feeding on plankton in midwater head-up at a 45 o angle, or feeding at the surface head-up at a 90 o angle (Branch 1983). Tadpoles are more gregarious by day than at night; this behavior is mediated by light, as indicated by the tightening of schools if a lamp illuminates the pond during the night. Other species of Phyllomedusa are known to form schools, such as Phyllomedusa tarsius (Duellman 1978). Schooling behavior in Central Amazonian tadpoles could be protection against predators. However, at least in Leptodactylus macrosternum schooling results in an increased feeding efficiency. The up and down movements of the school in the water column disrupts the debris on the bottom and puts in suspension particulated detritus and small bottom-dwelling organisms, which constitute the tadpoles’ diet (Dixon & Staton 1976). Apart from the presumably aposematic coloration of tadpoles of Boana geographica, Rhinella marina and Phyllodemusa vaillantii, other protective color patterns may be present in Central Amazonian anuran larvae. Camouflage, which in the animal kingdom is a widespread means or reducing the probability of being detected by visuallyoriented predators, appears to be present in many if not most tadpole species occurring in Central Amazon. Camouflage by background color matching appears to be very common, considering the predominance of dull colors such as beige, brown and gray associated with irregular dark spots and blotches (see, e. g., Allobates sumtuosus in Fig. 5 D). The importance of camouflage is further suggested by the observation that in several species, color and color patterns may differ depending on the color of the substrate or water turbidity (see a Leptodactylus knudseni from a clayish puddle, Fig. 54 D), or over ontogeny. Eggs of the aromobatid frog Allobates femoralis are laid in the leaf-litter; after completion of the embryonic development, tadpoles are carried on the dorsum of one of the parents to a temporary water body (Lima et al. 2012). During the transport phase, tadpoles are black as is the color of the parent’s dorsum; however, coloration changes to beige or brownish-gray in the water, therefore maintaining camouflage, but to a different background (Schiesari, pers. obs.). Camouflage by disruption, i. e., in which color patterns break the shape and / or the outline of the individual, could also be occurring. Several species of Dendropsophus, including D. cf. brevifrons (Fig. 24 A, B), D. haraldschultzi (Fig. 25 A, B), and D. parviceps (Fig. 29 A, B), as well as Lysapsus bolivianus (Fig. 32 D), present a broad dark band in the posterior half or third of the tail; all these species are nektonic and, therefore, supposedly visible swimmers. Diet. Information on Central Amazonian tadpole diets is scant. Table 4 suggests that oophagy is widespread (see Figure 76 for a tadpole with a dilated venter due to egg consumption). Necrophagy towards other tadpoles (observed in Rhinella marina, Leptodactylus knudseni, Trachycephalus coriaceus; L. Schiesari pers. obs.) and other animals (a Leptodactylus knudseni tadpole was observed voraciously eating a dead earthworm; L. Schiesari pers. obs.) is probably also common. Cannibalism towards live tadpoles was observed in just a few cases but is probably common towards early developing embryos judging from the importance of oophagy. Consumption of detritus, periphyton and phytoplankton, which are important basal food sources for generalized anuran larvae (e. g., McDiarmid & Altig 1999) are surely more widespread. Boana geographica is frequently seen grazing on periphyton (L. Schiesari pers. obs.). Allobates femoralis is known to consume detritus (Weygoldt 1980) as is Trachycephalus resinifictrix (Schiesari et al. 2003 a). All phyllomedusid species occurring in the Central Amazonia are frequently observed suspension feeding at the surface or in midwater, but are also observed grazing. Gut content analysis demonstrated that Phyllomedusa vaillanti ingests a large amount of phytoplankton and particulate matter (Branch 1983). Parasites. Although parasitism is an important and widespread type of interspecific interaction, to our knowledge the only record of parasites for any Central Amazonian tadpole is that of an undescribed species of Argulus (Crustacea, Branchiura, Argulidae). Argulus is an ectoparasite that was observed on a single occasion to infest about 20 % of all individuals of Boana geographica in a terra-firme impounded stream (L. Schiesari, E. Fischer and M. Gordo pers. obs.; species identification by J. C. Malta, INPA). Argulid branchiurans are parasites of a number of aquatic vertebrates, including fish, adult amphibians, turtles and caimans, and it is likely that this particular species is generalized with respect to host (J. C. Malta, pers. comm.). The behavior of the tadpoles of B. geographica, which form dense, tightly aggregated schools, may facilitate the rapid spread of a parasite population once a single host individual is infected. Endoparasites are less conspicuous and have not been reported for Central Amazonian tadpoles. Competition. While natural history observations suffice for detecting the occurrence of predation or parasitism (even if not their importance), competition can only be unequivocally demonstrated experimentally. No experimental studies have been conducted about competitive interactions in Central Amazonian tadpole communities. Nevertheless, intra- and interspecific competition is very likely to be important not only because it is widespread in tadpole assemblages elsewhere but also because high densities of eggs and / or tadpoles of tadpoles of the same or different species are frequently observed in nature. For example, Schiesari et al. (2003 a) found up to 16 Trachycephalus resinifictrix individuals per liter in water-filled treeholes, which are constrained habitats characterized by very low food availability. Likewise, small, shallow temporary ponds sometimes present high tadpole densities, including several coexisting species with very similar ecomorphological features (see below:´Ecomorphological guilds´). Ecomorphological guilds A guild is a set of species that utilize resources in similar ways and thus potentially compete (e. g., Holt 2009). Altig & Johnston (1989) proposed a system, later revised by McDiarmid & Altig (1999), for the classification of ecomorphological guilds of anuran larvae. As presented in´Reproductive modes and premetamorphic development´, the highest-order division in their classification is the source of nutrients for the embryos and larvae, dichotomized as either endotrophs and exotrophs. Among endotrophs, six guilds were recognized based on the loss of tadpole features, the site of embryo-larval development, and the association between parents and their offspring. Among exotrophic species, 15 guilds were recognized: three common to lentic and lotic habitats, five found exclusively in lentic habitats, and seven found exclusively in lotic habitats. Definition of guilds was based on morphology, known and presumed diet, and known and presumed natural history. Although their classification system captures the diversity of embryo-larval anuran ecomorphotypes, its application is difficult. This is because ecological information on tadpole food and feeding are scant, but also because branching in their system can be variously defined by habitat (´arboreal´), microhabitat (´benthic´), trophic level (´carnivorous´), size of particle ingested (´macrophagous´), feeding mode (´suspension feeder´) and mechanism of maintaining position in water (´adherent´). Evidently, the autecology of any species is defined by a combination of every one of these attributes (for example, a species could be lentic, benthic, carnivorous and macrophagous at the same time). We therefore propose a classification system of tadpole ecomorphological guilds that is inspired, but attempts to circumvent, some of the drawbacks of the classification system of Altig & Johnston (1989) and McDiarmid & Altig (1999). The logical structure of our classification system is presented in Fig. 77 as a decision tree with five hierarchical levels. The first hierarchical level is source of nourishment (endotroph or exotroph). The second, third and fourth hierarchical levels refer to larval habitat including whether terrestrial or aquatic; among aquatic habitats, whether arboreal, lentic surface water body or lotic surface water body; and among surface water bodies, whether the tadpole occupies fossorial, benthic or nektonic microhabitats. The fifth hierarchical level refers to predominant feeding mode as surface feeding, suspension feeding, rasping, biting or generalized (see below). To avoid further subjectivities, guilds are unnamed — they are simply descriptions of the abovementioned attributes (´exotroph, aquatic, lotic, nektonic, generalist feeder´) as is usually the case of traditional bird guilds (e. g., the´foliage- and bark-gleaning guild of insectivorous´). When additional information is available, we add by the end of the description (e. g.,´with a strong reliance on periphyton grazing´). Using this system all endotrophic guilds of McDiarmid and Altig (1999) remained unchanged; however, only a subset of their exotrophic guilds could be retained (´arboreal´,´suspension feeders´) without adjustments. We first synthesized relevant morphological traits, diet, feeding mode, and position in the water column of all species described in this monograph (Table 5). Morphological traits included body shape, eye position (i. e., position on the head) and eye direction (i. e., direction of the gaze), fin height, oral disc position, and presence and number of keratinized mouthparts. Because body shape is indicative of position in the water column, body shape was coded as´depressed´ (body height / body width ratio <0.9),´intermediate´ (BH / BW = 1) or´compressed´ (BH / BW> 1.1). Slightly depressed (BH / BW = 0.9) and slightly compressed (BH / BW = 1.1) bodies were marked in grey in Table 5; greater or smaller ratios were marked in black. Eye position and direction were coded as´eyes dorsally or dorsolaterally positioned and directed´,´eyes laterally positioned and directed´ and´intermediate´ (for example, in cases where eyes were dorsolaterally positioned but laterally directed). Fin height was coded as´dorsal and ventral fins shallow´,´dorsal and ventral fins moderately high or high´ and´intermediate´ (for example, when the dorsal fin was shallow but the ventral fin was moderately high). Oral disc position (or mouth position, when an oral disc was not present) was coded as´ventral´,´anteroventral´ or´terminal´. Keratinized mouthparts comprised one column for´jaw sheaths absent´, one column for´jaw sheaths present´ and one column for the basic labial tooth row formula (i. e., LTRF without reference to tooth row gaps). Additional morphological traits that are relevant for assessing resource use (such as, for example, the presence of a large abdominal disc in Atelopus) were annotated in the column´Other´ (´other morphological observations´). Feeding habits — diet and feeding mode — were also presented and coded combining our own field observations with published literature based on field observations, gut content analyses or experiments. Because data on tadpole diets are scant, studies conducted outside of Amazonia were also included. Dietary items were classified as´phytoplankton´,´zooplankton´,´periphyton´,´detritus´,´higher plants´,´invertebrates´,´amphibian eggs´,´tadpoles (live)´and´carrion (necrophagy)´. Items reported in the literature as´rare´ or with frequency of occurrence <10 % in gut content analyses were ignored. Data on consumption of amphibian eggs were color coded according to the voracity with which eggs were consumed. This was possible because most data on oophagy were quantified in experiments by Magnusson & Hero (1991). Oophagy was reported as absent (<10 % of the eggs offered were consumed), slight (10 % <x <25 %, light grey), moderate (25 % <x <50 %, grey), and substantial (> 50 %; black). Some species not tested by Magnusson & Hero (1991) were so voracious egg predators that could be easily classified as´substantial´ egg predators even if the methodology of assessing oophagy was different (e. g., Osteocephalus oophagus, Trachycephalus resinifictrix). Feeding mode was classified as´surface film feeding´,´suspension feeding´,´rasping´,´biting´, and´swallowing´.´Swallowing´ was used for referring to ingestion of large intact particles (such as amphibian eggs). Finally, position in the water column was classified as´fossorial´,´benthic´ and´nektonic´. We do not recognize strictly´neustonic´ tadpoles in Central Amazonia even though some species are known to forage in the water surface. All data presented here on morphological traits, diet, feeding mode, and position in the water column are either observational or experimentally derived. By contrast, ecomorphological guilds are hypotheses based on (i) these information (ii) known or expected correspondence between form, function and natural history (such as in Wassersug 1980 and McDiarmid & Altig 1999) (iii) feeding habits in species morphologically similar and / or phylogenetically related and (iv) ecological plausibility (e. g., it is not a reasonable expectation that suspension feeding is a viable feeding mode for tadpoles in fast flowing water). In the definition of guilds, source of nourishment (endotroph vs. exotroph) and habitat (level 1: terrestrial vs. aquatic; level 2: among aquatic habitats, arboreal vs. lentic vs. lotic) are all based in the information recorded in Tables 1 and 2. Species living exclusively or predominantly in ponds and puddles are considered lentic, and those living exclusively or predominantly in streams are considered lotic. Species living in floodplain lakes and rivers are considered lentic and lotic because usually associated to shallow shores or floating meadows which are lentic biotopes. In the definition of guilds, microhabitat (fossorial vs. benthic vs. nektonic) and feeding mode (surface feeder vs. suspension feeder vs. rasper vs. biter vs´generalistic´) are based on a combination of behavioral observations, gut content analyses and ecomorphological inferences. For example, unless natural history observations indicate otherwise, species with a combination of depressed bodies, dorsal or dorsolateral eyes, shallow fins and ventral oral disks are considered benthic. Species with compressed bodies, lateral eyes, moderately high or high tail fins and terminal oral disks were considered nektonic. Likewise, unless natural history observations indicate otherwise, species lacking keratinized jaw sheaths are presumed to obtain their food by means of suspension feeding. Tadpoles of species possessing jaw sheaths but no labial tooth rows are presumed to obtain their food by biting, and those possessing labial tooth rows are presumed to be capable of scraping. Tadpoles possessing numerous labial tooth rows are presumed to rely extensively on scraping course material. Natural history observations most often match these expectations. For example, microhylids lack keratinized mouthparts and feed primarily by suspension feeding. Dendropsophus possesses a jaw sheath but no or few labial tooth rows and were observed actively biting other tadpoles. Most tadpoles have labial tooth rows and feed by scraping periphyton and detritus. A´generalist feeder´ is a species whose tadpole either was observed to display several feeding modes or to possess a generalized morphology with no clear indication of predominance of one feeding mode relative to others. As one example, phyllomedusids have compressed bodies (slightly depressed in P. bicolor), lateral eyes, fins of intermediate height (as ventral fins are moderately high or high but dorsal fins are invariably shallow), and an anteroventral oral disc with LTRF 2 / 3. As one might expect based on their morphology, natural history observations demonstrate that they are all nektonic. In Phyllomedusa tarsius, the tail terminates in a very distinct flagellum (not as distinct in other species) capable of independent movement in such a way that tadpoles retain their position in the water column with no noticeable body movement. P. vaillanti was observed surface film feeding, suspension feeding, and rasping surfaces. As expected, its gut contents included phytoplankton, periphyton and detritus (Branch 1983). Upon dissection P. vaillanti revealed large and deep branchial baskets with dense filter mesh (LS pers. obs) and, in addition, refused to eat amphibian eggs when offered them (Magnusson & Hero 1991). The morphological and behavioral similarity of all four species permitted us to propose that Central Amazonian phyllomedusids are suspension raspers, i. e., tadpoles that feed by a combination of filtering from the water column and rasping submerged surfaces (as, in fact, proposed by McDiarmid & Altig 1999). Other hypothesized guilds, and the morphological and natural history observations on which their classification is based, are presented in Table 5. Morphology Diet Feeding mode Position Body Eyes Fin height Oral disc Mouthparts high dorsolateral high or absent present plants eggs) live necrophagy) Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed or dorsal intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal sheaths jaw sheats jaw LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian tadpoles (carrion (surface feeding feeding suspension rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic ENDOTROPHS Terrestrial Endotroph, terrestrial, nidicolous Allobates nidicola Anomaloglossus stepheni - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adenomera andreae 0 / 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adenomera hylaedactyla 0 / 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Synapturanus ajuricaba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Synapturanus mirandaribeiroi - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Endotroph, terrestrial, direct developer Pristimantis fenestratus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pristimantis cf. marmoratus Pristimantis ockendeni Pristimantis zimmermanae Phyzelaphryne sp. ... Continued on the next page high dorsolateral or high absent present plants eggs live)) necrophagy Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed or dorsal intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal sheaths jaw sheats jaw LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian tadpoles (( carrion surface feeding feeding suspension rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic Aquatic Endotroph, aquatic, paraviviparous Pipa arrabali - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pipa pipa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - EXOTROPHS Terrestrial Exotroph, terrestrial, possibly oophagous Leptodactylus pentadactylus 1 / 2 1 - - - Leptodactylus stenodema? Aquatic Exotroph, aquatic, arboreal Osteocephalus oophagus 2 / 3 2 Trachycephalus cunauaru 2 / 3 - Trachycephalus resinifictrix 4 2 Ponds and puddles Nektonic Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, nektonic, suspension feeder ... Continued on the next page high dorsolateral or high absent present plants eggs live) necrophagy) Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed dorsal or intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal jaw sheaths jaw sheats LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian tadpoles (( carrion feeding surface suspension feeding rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic Dendropsophus marmoratus 0 / 0 Dendropsophus minutus 1 / 2 Dendropsophus parviceps 0 / 0 Dendropsophus sp. Dendropsophus minimus Benthic Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, benthic, generalist feeder Allophryne ruthveni Allobates caeruleodacylus Allobates femoralis 2 / 3 Allobates paleovarzensis Allobates sumtuosus 2 / 3 NO Amazophrynella manaos 2 / 3 Rhaebo guttatus Rhinella margaritifera ... Continued on the next page Morphology Diet Feeding mode Position Body Eyes Fin height Oral disc Mouthparts high dorsolateral high or absent present plants eggs live)) necrophagy Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed dorsal or intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal jaw sheaths jaw sheats LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian (tadpoles carrion (surface feeding suspension feeding rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic Ameerega trivittata Boana calcarata 2 / 3 Boana fasciata 2 / 4 Boana lanciformis 2 / 3 Boana multifasciata Hydrolaetare schmidti Leptodactylus fuscus Leptodactylus longirostris 2 / 3 Leptodactylus mystaceus 2 / 3 Leptodactylus petersii 2 / 3 Leptodactylus podicipinus Leptodactylus riveroi 2 / 3 Lithodytes lineatus Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, benthic, biting and scraping carnivore Ceratophrys cornuta 9 / 9 5 Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, benthic, generalist feeder with a predominance of macrophagy Osteocephalus leprieurii Osteocephalus sp. 2 / 6 Osteocephalus taurinus 2 / 7 Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, benthic, generalist feeder with a predominance of macrophagy of animal matter ... Continued on the next page Morphology Diet Feeding mode Position Body Eyes Fin height Oral disc Mouthparts high dorsolateral high or absent present plants eggs) live) necrophagy Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed or dorsal intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal jaw sheaths sheats jaw LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian tadpoles (carrion (surface feeding suspension feeding rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic Leptodactylus knudseni 2 / 3 1 Leptodactylus labyrinthicus Leptodactylus rhodomystax 2 / 3 Exotroph, aquatic, lentic, benthic and nektonic, generalistic feeder Leptodactylus macrosternum 2 / 3 Lakes and rivers Nektonic Exotroph, aquatic, lentic and lotic, nektonic, suspension feeder Dendropsophus walfordi 0 / 0 6 Exotroph, aquatic, lentic and lotic, nektonic, suspension rasper Scinax nebulosus Scinax sp. 1 2 / 3 Scinax sp. 3 2 / 3 Exotroph, aquatic, lentic and lotic, nektonic, biter Dendropsophus haraldschultzi 0 / 1 Dendropsophus leucophyllatus 0 / 0 Dendropsophus rossalleni 0 / 0 Dendropsophus triangulum ... Continued on the next page high dorsolateral high or absent present plants eggs) live necrophagy) Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed dorsal or intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal jaw sheaths jaw sheats LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian (tadpoles (carrion surface feeding suspension feeding rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic Exotroph, aquatic, lentic and lotic, nektonic, generalist feeder Rhinella marina 2 / 3 Lysapsus bolivianus 2 / 3 Pseudis paradoxa 2 / 3 Scarthyla goinorum 2 / 3 Sphaenorhyncus carneus 1 / 2 Sphaenorhyncus dorisae 2 / 3 Sphaenorhyncus lacteus 2 / 3 Benthic Exotroph, aquatic, lentic and lotic, benthic, generalist feeder Boana punctata 2 / 3 Boana raniceps 2 / 3 Boana wavrini 2 / 3 Leptodactylus leptodactyloides Leptodactylus wagneri Streams Nektonic Exotroph, aquatic, lotic, nektonic, generalist feeder with strong reliance on periphyton grazing and oophagy ... Continued on the next page high dorsolateral high or absent present plants eggs live) necrophagy) Hypothesized Guilds and Species depressed intermediate compressed dorsal or intermediate lateral shallow intermediate moderately ventral anteroventral terminal jaw sheaths jaw sheats LTRF Other phytoplankton zooplankton periphyton detritus higher invertebrates amphibian (tadpoles carrion (feeding surface feeding suspension rasping biting swallowing fossorial benthic nektonic 3 / 5 - Boana geographica 6 Benthic Exotroph, aquatic, lotic, benthic, generalist feeder with a predominance of macrophagy Boana boans 2 / 4 2 / 3 - Boana cinerascens 4 Osteocephalus cabrerai 2 / 6 Exotroph, aquatic, lotic, benthic / gastromyzophorous, rasper Atelopus manauensis 2 / 3 7 Fossorial Exotroph, aquatic, lotic, fossorial, biter Hyalinobatrachium iaspidiense Vitreorana ritae Footnotes´Other remarkable morphological traits´: 1 elongated tadpole with heavy jaw sheaths; 2 reduced number of tooth rows, external and internal papillae, and folding pattern of filter rows relative to other spp in genus (Schiesari et al. 1996); 3 tail tip capable of independent movement; 4 large and deep branchial baskets with dense filter mesh; 5 massive tadpole with heavy, pointed jaw sheath; 6 mouth modified as an oral tube; 7 large abdominal sucker; 8 heavy, serrated jaw sheaths.´Diet´ and´Feeding mode´. Coding is based on own observations and literature (see Table 4 for literature on oophagy; Kenny 1969 for diet of S. ruber, D. minutus, L. petersi, and R. marina; Branch 1983 for diet of P. vaillanti; Weygoldt 1980 for diet of A. femoralis; Weygoldt 1986 for diet of D. parviceps; Duellman & Lizana 1994 for diet of C. cornuta; Schiesari et al. 1993 b for diet of T. resinifictrix; and Schiesari et al. 1996 for correlates between morphology and food particle size in Osteocephalus and Trachycephalus). A useful application of the classification system is to describe the distribution and diversity of ecomorphological guilds within and among habitats (Table 6). Focusing on the better-known terra-firme amphibian fauna, isolated forest ponds contain 8 ecomorphological guilds, each with one to eight species, for a total of 24 species. Likewise, streamside forest ponds contain 10 ecomorphological guilds, each with 1 to 14 species, for a total of 33 species. Importantly, although 24 and 33 species might theoretically coexist in isolated forest ponds and in streamside ponds, mean number of species per water body is only 4.7 and 1.6, respectively (Gascon 1991). Overlap in guild composition between these different lentic water bodies is very high, but isolated forest ponds have three times more species recognized as nektonic suspension feeders and nektonic suspension raspers, while streamside ponds have two to three times more species recognized as nektonic biters and benthic, generalist feeders. The distinctive tadpole of Ceratophrys cornuta, classified as a benthic, biting and scraping carnivore, is exclusive to isolated forest ponds whereas species (and therefore guilds) typical of streams are sometimes found in streamside ponds. Nine species belonging to five ecomorphological guilds are found in streams, including the emblematic fossorial biters (Vitreorana and presumably Hyalinobatrachium iaspidiense, whose tadpoles is unknown) and the benthic / gastromyzophorous rasper Atelopus manauensis possessing an abdominal sucker that permits life in fast flowing streams. Again, even though 9 species might theoretically coexist in streams, mean number of species per water body was 0.4 (Gascon 1991). Phytotelms contain one ecomorphological guild,´arboreal´, with three species. These are all strict habitat specialists, as were never found in surface water bodies in many months of intensive sampling. Finally, current knowledge permits recognizing only 5 ecomorphological guilds in lakes and rivers, each containing 1 to 7 species for a total of 22 species. These are nektonic, generalist feeders; nektonic, suspension feeders; nektonic, suspension raspers; nektonic, biters; and benthic, generalized feeders. Final remarks Naturalists have been long interested in the high diversity of species in tropical rainforests. At the broadest level, the composition and structure of any ecological community is a result of four classes of processes: speciation, dispersal, drift and selection (Vellend 2010). Speciation, or more generally evolutionary and biogeographic processes, have a fundamental role in determining the pool of species we observe today in Central Amazonia. This is testified both by the recognition of the Guyanan region as an area of endemism for amphibians (Ron 2000), and by the proposition of topographic events and landscape restructuration as influencing the diversification of the Central Amazonian fauna (Badgley 2010; Hoorn et al. 2010). From this species pool, however, local communities are assembled by selection (deterministic fitness differences among individuals of different species), drift (random changes in species relative abundances) and ongoing dispersal (movement of organisms across space) (Vellend 2010). A major cornerstone of contemporary ecology was the recognition of stochastic processes in driving patterns of species abundances (Hubbell 2001). Indeed, the last two decades witnessed a heated debate about the relative roles of niche (i. e., selection) and neutral (i. e. ecological drift) processes in driving community structure. Even though chance is inevitable in nature and must contribute to Central Amazonian amphibian population dynamics, especially for rare species, the natural history this monograph conveys provides a repertoire of arguments for strong interspecific niche differentiation helping to maintain species diversity. Such niche differentiation is evident in the wide interspecific variation in amphibian reproductive strategies, reproductive phenology, or habitat use at the macro, meso and microscales. Indeed, classical habitat segregation, one of the most frequently documented forms of niche partitioning and species packing (Schoener 1974; Pianka 1975; Toft 1985), is demonstrated by the nearly complete habitat segregation of lotic and lentic larvae, of pond-dwelling and phytotelmata-dwelling larvae among lentic larvae, and even among species of phytotelmata-dwelling larvae. Or, still, by the presence of up to seven reproductive modes (1, 11, 20, 24, 28, 29, 30) and eight ecomorphological guilds in a single isolated forest pond a few tens of square meters in area. Of course, habitat segregation is a pattern that could result from a variety of different processes within selection, including physiological constraints and interspecific interactions such as competition and predation. Dispersal and dispersal limitation among Central Amazonian amphibians also have the potential to influence community composition and species distributions. At large spatial scales, successful species introductions provide one of the strongest cases for the importance of dispersal limitation in constraining the set of species capable of joining a community. Leptodactylus labyrinthicus, a species from the open phytophysiognomies of Central and Southern Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay successfully invaded Central Amazonia once dispersal limitation was overcome by human-mediated introduction for frog farming (Carvalho et al. 2013). Likewise, the expansion of generalistic open area species, such as Leptodactylus fuscus and L. longirostris, accompanying the opening of new roads in Central Amazonia is yet another evidence for habitat change favoring species for which closed-canopy forests appear to be a barrier (see Schiesari et al. 2020 for an analogous scenario of expansion of generalistic open area amphibians in newly deforested land). At landscape-level spatial scales, the composition of larval amphibian assemblages in terra-firme forest water bodies are explained both by their environmental attributes and their spatial relations. This constitutes additional evidence that dispersal limitation plays a role in the organization of Central Amazonian amphibian biodiversity (Almeida et al. 2015). Indeed, species distributions sometimes appear to deviate from what we know about their environmental demands. For example, there is no obvious environmental reason for why Trachycephalus coriaceus is not found in Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke north of Manaus, as apparently similar habitats are available to those where the species occurs. Of course, these and other phenomena that lie at the heart of biodiversity research are strongly dependent on basic descriptive research about who are the species that compose biological communities and where, when, and how they live. Due to the challenges imposed by diversity in itself, but also to the more recent history of investigation and the strong geographic biases in the distribution of researchers (see, e. g., Schiesari et al. 2007), megadiverse regions are those where basic biological knowledge is most lacking. When we in addition consider the rate of deforestation in the Amazon — totaling 419 thousand square kilometers since our study started (1990 - 2019; INPE 2020), then it is clear that massive funding of biological research in the region is needed. In this study we describe the larval stages of three-quarters of anuran amphibian species of Central Amazonia, and amass a considerable volume of natural history observations taken over 20 years of fieldwork. We hope that these efforts inspire, and provide the tools, for further studies on the ecological and evolutionary forces shaping Amazonian anuran assemblages, and their conservation.	en	Schiesari, Luis, Rossa-Feres, Denise De Cerqueira, Menin, Marcelo, Hödl, Walter (2022): Tadpoles of Central Amazonia (Amphibia: Anura). Zootaxa 5223 (1): 1-149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5223.1.1
