identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
DF668780FFD5FFC5FF41FD8C68E7E51F.text	DF668780FFD5FFC5FF41FD8C68E7E51F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callitrichidae Gray 1821	<div><p>Family CALLITRICHIDAE (MARMOSETS AND TAMARINS)</p> <p>• Small monkeys with relatively long trunk and long limbs, short snout, large ears, colorful tufts, mustaches, fringes, and manes, digits with claw-like nails except on big toe, and long, non-prehensile tail.</p> <p>- 30170 cm.</p> <p>• Neotropical Region.</p> <p>• Humid submontane, lowland tropical, dry semi-deciduous and deciduous, gallery, and Chacoan forests, scrub, and farmland-forest mosaics.</p> <p>• 7 genera, 47 species, 62 taxa.</p> <p>2 species Critically Endangered, 6 species Endangered, 6 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD5FFC5FF41FD8C68E7E51F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD7FFC6FFDCFE496B79EAC2.text	DF668780FFD7FFC6FFDCFE496B79EAC2.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebuella pygmaea (Spix 1823)	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Pygmy Marmoset</p> <p>Cebuella pygmaea</p> <p>French: Quistiti mignon / German: Zwergseidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi pigmeo Other common names: Eastern Pygmy Marmoset (niveiventris), Western Pygmy Marmoset (pygmaea)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Iacchus pygmaeus Spix, 1823,</p> <p>Brazil, Amazonas, near Tabatinga, Rio Solimoes, Amazonas State, Brazil.</p> <p>Fur coloration used to distinguish Cebuella pygmaea is variable. Morphological, cytogenetic, and molecular genetic studies have shown that Cebuella is closely related to the Amazonian and Atlantic Forest marmosets. Healthy hybrids of C. pygmaca x Callithrix jacchus have been produced in captivity. Some regard them as congeneric, notably C. P. Groves who, in his 2001 book Primate Taxonomy, placed Cebuella as a subgenus of Callithrix. The validity of subspecies of C. pygmaea is still inconclusive, and geographic distributions are unclear. Two subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. C. p. pygmaea Spix, 1823 — Upper Amazon in S Colombia, W Brazil, E Ecuador, and N Peru, N of the Amazon River and left bank of the Rio Pastaza, E to the mouth of the Rio Japura, and S of the Rio Japura-Caqueta to the Andes. C. p. niverventris Lonnberg, 1940 — Amazonian lowlands and Andean foothills in W Brazil, E Peru, and N Bolivia, S of the Amazon River, E of the Rio Mayo and the Rio Huallaga above the Rio Mayo, S to the upper Rio Purus, E to N Bolivia (Rio Muyumanu), and N probably through the entire interfluvium of the rios Purus and Madeira.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 12-16 cm, tail 17-23 cm; weight 85-140 g. Females are slightly larger than males. The Pygmy Marmosetis the smallest of the monkeys, generally tawny or gray-brown agouti with the upper surface of the tail barred with black. Ears are hidden by long backswept hairs on the cheeks that combine to form a mane. Eyes are large and almond-shaped. The “Western Pygmy Marmoset “ (C. p. pygmaea) is speckled greenish-brown above, with a buffy underside, described by E. Lonnberg as dirty yellowish brown, not sharply distinct from the color of the dorsum. Upperparts of the “Eastern Pygmy Marmoset” (C. p. niveiventris) are similar to the nominate form, although, according to Lonnberg who first described this subspecies, somewhat paler and more grayish on the posterior parts of the back, and especially the outer parts of hindlegs are paler. Lonnberg’s principal diagnostic feature for the Eastern Pygmy Marmoset was the color of the fur on the ventrum, which is “all over pure white with a very sharp line of demarcation as well across the foreneck as along the sides of the breast and flanks.” The white extends along the inner sides of the arms to the hands and likewise on the hindlegs to the feet, but there it becomes gradually yellowish, especially on the distal parts.</p> <p>Habitat. Lowland forest near or in periodically inundated river floodplains; higher ground (terra firma) in bamboo thickets, liana forest, and secondary growth at the edges of pasture and orchards; and tree falls. It tends to travel in dense vegetation of the understory near the ground, usually below 5 m; it forages for insects and feeds on exudates in the middle strata of the forest, at heights up to 15 m; and it will often rest, play, and groom in the middle strata and lower canopy at heights of up to 20 m. In some regions, the Pygmy Marmoset shares its habitat with up to twelve other primate species. The many species of saddle-back tamarins (Saguinus) also travel and forage for insects in the lowest levels of the forest, and although they do not gouge tree trunks, branches, and vines to obtain exudates, they feed on gums from holes gouged by Pygmy Marmosets. Tamarins are generally less common in the floodplain forests preferred by the Pygmy Marmosets and more frequently occupy inland terra firma forests. Field studies on the demography, ecology, and behavior of the Pygmy Marmoset have been carried out by M. Ramirez at Mishani on the Rio Nanay and P. Soini in the Rio Maniti Basin both in north-western Peru and by S. de la Torre and colleagues at a number of localities in north-eastern Ecuador.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Pygmy Marmoset feeds mainly on arthropods and exudates of certain trees and lianas. About two-thirds of their feeding time is dedicated to plant exudates—gouging tree trunks, branches, and lianas and eating gums that are exuded as a result. Holes they gouge with their lower incisors vary in shape and size, but they are generally oblong or circular, 10-20 mm wide, and 4-18 mm deep. The form, depth, and size of the holes depend on qualities of the bark and wood of each species. Exudate feeding is most common from ground level to ¢.7 m, but extends up to 15 m into the lower canopy of the forest. Pygmy Marmosets generally enter a tree by jumping onto the upper part of the trunk, and then they go down and work their way back up, visiting gouge holes as they go. They visit 5-8 holes/minute, eating from each for c.3 seconds and gouging for another 4-5 seconds. A large number of gum-producing trees and vines are exploited. Fifty-eight tree species were exploited by the Pygmy Marmosets during c.1400 hours of observation of groups along Rio Maniti, but just a few were used intensively, most notably species from the families Anacardiaceae (Spondias mombin), Fabaceae (Parkia oppositifolia), Vochysiaceae (Vochysia lomatophylla), and Meliaceae (Trichilia). Qualea (Vochysiaceae) and Inga (Fabaceae) are also important. A group of Pygmy Marmosets typically has one principal tree as a source of exudate and a number of secondary sources. When exudates from the principal source diminish or dry up, the group switches to a suitable secondary source or moves to a new home range. The principal exudate source of a group of Pygmy Marmosets at Mishani was a Quararibea rhombifolia (Bombacaeae) tree. Three Trichilia trees and the vine Cheiloclinwm cognatum (Celastraceae) were used secondarily, and V. lomatophylla and Inga were exploited very infrequently. Nineteen groups of Pygmy Marmosets in six localities in north-eastern Ecuador used 21 species as exudate sources; all were trees, except one. The species exploited and the number of sources varied between localities; 2-8 (mode = 2) trees of 1-5 different species (mode = 2). The principal food trees differed at each locality: Sterculia apetala (Sterculiaceae) at San Pablo, Cedrela odorata (Meliaceae) at Sacha, Inga marginata (Fabaceae) at Amazoonico, and Parkia balslevii (Fabaceae) at Zancudo. Each food source accounted for 53-93% of all the records of this activity. Choice and intensity of use of particular gum-providing species are not related to its abundance in the forest, but exudate productivity and quality are thought to be the key factors. A gouge hole in a Quararibea, for example, can produce a marble-sized glob of gum in less than 30 minutes, whereas a similar sized hole in Trichilia may produce a small drop of gum in the same time. The remaining feeding time is focused on arthropods (spiders, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera) and sometimes small vertebrates (e.g. Anolis, Cnemidophorus, Gonatodes lizards, and birds). Fruits (e.g. succulent Ficus [Moraceae] and Pourouma [Urticaceae]), buds, flowers, and nectar are also eaten when they become available.</p> <p>Breeding. Typical of callitrichids, Pygmy Marmosets generally give birth to twins, occasionally singletons or triplets. The single breeding female in a group is able to give birth twice a year, with interbirth intervals of 5-7 months. In captivity, mean gestation is c.142 days, time from parturition to the resumption of ovulation is c.14 days, ovarian cycles have a mean length of 27 days, and first births for females occur when they are 24-42 months old and 5-27 months after pairing with a male. Interbirth intervals of 31 full-term pregnancies in captivity were 149-746 days (mean 212-7 + 122-3 days). In captivity, Pygmy Marmosets can conceive at 19 months old, indicating that puberty occurs when they are c.1-5 years old. They give birth until they die at 11-12 years of age, although interbirth intervals increase as they age and infant survival decreases. A pair bond is formed between a female and her mate, but when there are two adult males in the group, both may copulate with her. The dominant male guards the female when she is receptive, keeping near and frequently approaching her, with occasional brief chases, smelling, and licking her genitalia and urine, which is associated with frequent genital presenting by the female (tail raised in a stiff arch). The male and female increase their scent marking, mutual huddling, and grooming at this time. In the wild, in the Peruvian Amazon at least, births occur throughout the year, but there are two peaks, one in May-June and the other in November—January. Eighty-four percent of the parous groups studied at Maniti produced twins in both birth peak periods. Females are not receptive during pregnancy or for 3-6 weeks following birth. Parturition generally occurs at night. Neonates weigh 13-15 g (head-body length 51-63 mm). Group members carry infants for the first 1-5-2 months and constantly for the first 1-2 weeks. As infants age, they may be left on their own (e.g. parked in the crown of the group’s principal feeding tree) for gradually longer intervals while group members forage. They are weaned at three months of age, begin to gouge for exudates by five months, and feed independently by six months. Group members offer food items to infants while they are learning to catch their own prey. Testes reach full size at 16 months. Females reach sexual maturity at 15-17 months and can conceive at 17 months. Infant survival rate in the wild has been estimated at 67%. Females have a postpartum ovarian cycle while still lactating, and males may show sexual interest in females nine days postpartum. Cycles of behavioral receptivity last six days.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Groups are active for about twelve hours a day, starting their activities at ¢.06:00 h and retiring to their sleeping sites a little before sunset at ¢.18:00 h. Heavy rain curtails their activities. Daily activities include exudate feeding, foraging on insects, resting, playing, huddling, and social grooming. Exudate feeding takes up c.33% of their day, insect foraging 16%, traveling 11%, and resting and social activities c.40%. A typical day for a group of Pygmy Marmosets includes feeding on exudates in the morning (variably until 06:30 h or as late as 09:00 h), with a gradualshift to basking, huddling, grooming, and play, followed by insect foraging until ¢.12:00 h when they rest again until early afternoon. Feeding on exudates and insect foraging resume.16:00-16:30 h until the group movesto its sleeping site before sunset.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Pygmy Marmosets are generally made up of a reproductive female and her mate, their offspring of up to four consecutive litters (twins), and sometimes other adults that may or may not be related to the breeding pair. Groups have 2-9 individuals, with a modal size of 6-7 (mean 5-1, n = 80 groups). Groups are often described as extended families, and most, often all, group members care for (e.g. carry) infants of the breeding female. Both sexes disperse, often as young adults, and join other groups or form new groups with other dispersing individuals. Dominance can be detected by individuals supplanting others at the exudate feeding holes. The breeding female is dominant over all group members, the breeding male is dominant over other males, and oldersiblings are dominant over youngersiblings. As with all callitrichids, grooming is an important aspect of their social life, taking up as much as 9% of their day. Groups occupy small, exclusive (no overlap with other groups) home ranges of 0-1-0-5 ha. In Ecuador, 19 groups had home ranges of 0-15—1-2 ha, with larger home rangesin igap6 (black-water inundated forest) (mean 0 74 + 0-1 ha) than in varzea (white-water inundated forest) (mean 0-42 + (0-07 ha). A home range near a river typically included a 90-m stretch of water-edge vegetation and extended away from the water ¢.20-60 m. Each day, a group may move 30-100 m, with their tortuous total travel paths of 280-300 m being determined largely by the location of exudate sources. The pattern of space use by Pygmy Marmosets differs from other callitrichids in that a group as a whole does not move around its home range but rather individuals are often scattered throughout their very small home ranges. Group members usually sleep together in a huddle in the crotch of a branch, a stump of an old broken branch, sometimes in an old termite nest, or a clump of epiphytes. These locations are generally at 7-10 m above the ground in the lower or middle crown of small (10 m high) to middle-sized (20 m) trees. Groups tend to have 1-3 habitual sleeping sites, one of which is used frequently and the others sporadically. Communication among group members is olfactory (urine and specialized skin glands), tactile, vocal, and postural. A ritualized genital display involves an individual turning its rump toward another, arching its back, raising its tail in a stiff arch, and strutting. Fur on the body and tail are ruffled, and the individual may produce a few drops of urine. This display is used by dominant males confronting subordinates, who crouch and remain still. Females display their genitals in this fashion, but without the strutting, back arching, and fur ruffling, as a sexual display/invitation to males. Adults and younger individuals of both sexes perform this display, accompanied by strutting and sit-rubbing (anogenital gland marking) toward humans. Studies of captive Pygmy Marmosets have shown patterns or sequences of calling among individuals in a group. These and various other findings indicate that they have a “conversational rule system”; in other words, they have “conversations.” Pygmy Marmosets flee, giving alarm calls, from approaching squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus and Sapajus). It is possible that tufted capuchins in particular are predators of Pygmy Marmosets. Although predation is very rarely seen, other potential predators include hawks and falcons, forest cats, Tayra (Eira barbara), and snakes (e.g. fer-de-lance, Bothrops atrox). Densities are 51-59 ind/km?in floodplain forest in Peru and 210-233 ind/ km?in their preferred habitats of river-edge forest. These high densities do not occur in all apparently suitable habitats, and it has been argued that the highest densities are found in areas where presence of humans has reduced numbers of predators, including capuchin monkeys, but has not resulted in excessive disturbance of the river-edge vegetation. Densities, and even the presence or absence, of Pygmy Marmosets are also dependent on distribution and abundance of exudate sources.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Pygmy Marmoset is not hunted, except for some trade as pets. It has a patchy distribution, being abundant in some areas of river edge, scarce along inland creeks or patches of secondary, bamboo, and liana forest, and absent over large expanses of terra firma forest with sparse understories. Deforestation and disturbance of their river-edge habitats can be detrimental and even cause local extinctions. In Ecuador, habitat disturbance and fragmentation (e.g. patches of river edge forest surrounded by pastures and crops) cause gradual population declines. Disappearance of Pygmy Marmosets can be partly explained by depletion of their exudate sources and absence of accessible new sources. Pygmy Marmosets are particularly sensitive to traffic, ambient noise, and persecution and capture as pets.</p> <p>Bibliography. Barroso et al. (1997), Bicca-Marques &amp; Calegaro-Marques (1995), Buchanan-Smith et al. (2000), Carlson, Ginther et al. (1996), Carlson, Ziegler &amp; Snowdon (1997), Christen (1974), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1976, 1977a), Converse et al. (1995), Dalton &amp; Buchanan-Smith (2005), Elowson et al. (1992), Fajardo (1988), Feistner &amp; Price (1990), Freese et al. (1982), Genoud et al. (1997), Hershkovitz (1977), Heymann &amp; Soini (1999), Kinzey et al. (1975), Larsson et al. (1982), Nagamachi et al. (1992), Napier (1976), Neusser et al. (2005), Pola &amp; Snowdon (1975), Queralt &amp; Vea (1998, 2004), Ramirez (1985), Ramirez et al. (1977), van Roosmalen &amp; van Roosmalen (1997), Rylands etal. (1993, 2009), Schroepel (1998), Snowdon &amp; Cleveland (1980, 1984), Snowdon &amp; Elowson (1999, 2001), Snowdon &amp; Hodun (1981), Snowdon &amp; Pola (1978a, 1978b, 1982), Snowdon &amp; de la Torre (2002), Soini (1982, 1987b, 1988, 1993), Spurlock (2002), Tagliaro et al. (2000), de la Torre &amp; Snowdon (2002, 2009), de la Torre, Snowdon &amp; Bejarano (2000), de la Torre, Yépez &amp; Snowdon (2009), Townsend &amp; Wallace (1999), Vinyard et al. (2009), Yépez et al. (2005), Youlatos (1999), Ziegler, Snowdon &amp; Bridson (1990), Zingg &amp; Martin (2001).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD7FFC6FFDCFE496B79EAC2	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD6FFC6FF20F44968FCE707.text	DF668780FFD6FFC6FF20F44968FCE707.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callibella humilis (M.van Roosmalen, T.van Roosmalen, R.A.Mittermeier & de Fonseca 1998)	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset</p> <p>Callibella humilis</p> <p>French: Ouistiti nain / German: Schwarzkronen-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de corona negra Other common names: Dwarf Marmoset, Roosmalens’s Dwarf Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix humilis van Roosmalen et al., 1998, Brazil, Amazonas, west bank of the lower Rio Aripuana, 1 km S of Nova Olinda, 41 km SW of Novo Aripuana, Amazonas State, Brazil.</p> <p>No subspecies are recognized, but there is some slight differentiation in color from the population living near the Rio Atininga, which has a more orange-ocherous underside, and the juveniles’ white lateral crown streaks are retained into maturity. Callibella is quite distinct from other marmosets (Cebuella and Mico) in both its cranial and postcranial morphology. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon in a tiny area (c.b—6° S, 60° W) between the E bank of the Rio Madeira and the W bank of the lower Rio Aripuana, S to a little beyond 6° S and W to the Rio Atininga or Rio Manicoré.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—-body 16-17 cm, tail 22-24 cm; weight 150-185 g. The Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset is evenly dark olive-brown above with an orangeyellow to golden to grayish yellow underside, including inner surfaces of limbs. The crown is black, and the face is mostly unpigmented except for a blackish circumocular zone, with white “eyebrows” extending back to the temples. Pinnae are bare, except for white tufts arising from their center. The tail is almost black with no, or at most very faint, rings.</p> <p>Habitat. Disturbed primary or secondary terra firma forest near plantations, fields, and tree gardens; undisturbed primary forest and seasonally inundated riparian forest (igapo). A survey on the left bank of the Rio Aripuana, focusing particularly on the Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset,failed to find them along 120-km census route either in undisturbed primary forest or igapo; however, surveys on the Rio Atininga and its major tributaries to the west found them in undisturbed primary forest and igapo.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Although very little is known, diets of the Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset includes fruits, small animal prey (especially insects), and, of particular significance, exudates. They share a morphological and behavioral specialization for exudativory with the Pygmy Marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea). They gouge tree trunks and branches to stimulate flow of exudates—notably, in one group observed, gum of the pioneer tree Didymopanax morototon: (Araliaceae). They feed on ripe fruits of Spondias mombin and Tapirira guianensis (both Anacardiaceae), Rollinia mucosa (Annonaceae), Inga edulis and Inga ingoides (both Fabaceae), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae), palm fruits, Astrocaryum vulgare, (Areceaceae) and wild cacao (Theobroma speciosum and 1. manriae, Sterculiceae).</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although not presently endangered, the Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset has one of the smallest distributions of any Neotropical primate, and a total population of likely no more than a few thousand individuals. It is not threatened by hunting.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aguiar &amp; Lacher (2003, 2009), Ford &amp; Davis (2009), Rylands et al. (2009), van Roosmalen &amp; van Roosmalen (2003), van Roosmalen et al. (1998).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD6FFC6FF20F44968FCE707	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD6FFC1FA3EF7896CABEC33.text	DF668780FFD6FFC1FA3EF7896CABEC33.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico argentatus (Linnaeus 1771)	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Silvery Marmoset</p> <p>Mico argentatus</p> <p>French: Ouistiti argenté / German: Silberaffchen / Spanish: Titi plateado</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia argentata Linnaeus, 1771,</p> <p>Para, Brazil. Restricted by Avila-Pires in 1969 to Cameta, left bank of lower Rio Tocantins.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S of the Rio Amazonas between the lower Rio Tocantins and Rio Tapajos, S along the right bank of the Tapajos to the Rio Cupari and left bank of the Rio Tocantins to c.4° S; between the Xingu and Tocantins,its distribution is delimited by submontane and montane forests of the Guiana Shield.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-22 cm,tail 26-33 cm; weight mean 349 g (males, n = 11) and 406 g (females, n = 9). The Silvery Marmosetis pale silvery-gray above and creamy-yellow below, with the two colors sharply demarcated. The tail is entirely black and not ringed, the head is creamy-white, and hands and feet are slightly darker than the body. The face and ears are naked and pinkish-red, often covered with irregular red blotches. External genitalia are red.</p> <p>Habitat. Secondary and disturbed primary lowland forest. At the mouth of the Rio Tapajos (Alter do Chao), the Silvery Marmosetlives in forest patches in a sandy-soil Amazonian savanna. Groups studied in Amazonian savanna occupied home ranges that included patches of clay-soil forest, edge habitat, secondary growth, and white-sand forest (“campinarana”). Campinarana was a preferred forest type because of the high density of gum-producing trees, particularly Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae) that also provided fruits. The Silvery Marmoset has also been studied in a forest on the east bank of the Rio Curua in young (5-year old, canopy at 6 m high) and older (agricultural plots abandoned 40 years previously, canopy 15-20 m) successional forests. A group studied at the Caxiuana National Forest, Para State, used the dense vegetation of young and older successional forest (“capoeirinha” and “capoeira”) ¢.78% of their time, edge forest 13%, igapo 6% (important during the late dry and early wet season when Symphonia globulifera nectar and Diospyros guianensis, Ebenaceae, fruits were available there), and high, mature, terra firma forest 3%. The Silvery Marmosetis sympatric with the Blackhanded Tamarin (Saguinus niger) between the rios Xingu and Tocantins. It is restricted to the dense lowland forests, whereas the Black-handed Tamarin occurs further south, occupying submontane and montane forests of the Guiana Shield.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of the Silvery Marmoset consist of small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey (arthropods and small vertebrates). A year-long study of two Silvery Marmoset groups in a 25-ha forest patch in a sandy soil savanna recorded a diet of fruits from 35 plant species, gum from eight species, and nectar of two species. Gum of Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae) and nectar of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) were important when fruits and insects were scarce in the driest months of the dry season. In a six-month study (February—July, spanning wet and dry seasons) of a group of Silvery Marmosets on the east bank of the Rio Curua, the diet comprised 63% exudates, 19% reproductive plant parts, and 18% animal prey. Fruit consumption declined and gum feeding increased in the dry season. More time was dedicated to foraging and feeding in the dry season. An earlier seven-month study of the same group found a diet of 59% exudates, 36% reproductive plant parts, and 5% animal prey; the differences were due to annual and seasonal variation. Tapirira and Symphonia were also important food resources at the Caxiuana National Forest. Species providing gum that were particularly important during the driest months (May-June) included Parkia ulei (Fabaceae) and Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae), and those providing fruits were Myrcia atramentifera (Myrtaceae), Pourouma (Urticaceae), Goupia glabra (Goupiaceae), and Protium (Burseraceae). Animal prey includes Orthoptera (Acrididae, Blattidae, Grillidae, Mantidae, Phasmidae, and Tettigoniidae), Odonata, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and Araneae. Silvery Marmosets follow swarms of army ants to capture small animals disturbed in thelitter.</p> <p>Breeding. Births of Silvery Marmosets have been recorded in February (early wet season) and July (end of the wet season) on the east bank of the Rio Curua. A single dominant female in a group of 6-9 individuals studied at the Caxuiana National Forest gave birth to twins at six-month intervals.</p> <p>Activity patterns. In a six-month study in Caxiuana National Forest, by the Rio Curua, individuals began their day between 06:20 h and 07:20 h and retired between 16:00 h and 18:05 h, being active generally for about ten hours/day. They concentrated their activities in the middle to lower canopy and understory. One study recorded that more than 90% of their activities occurred below 15 m above the ground in a forest with a canopy of 35 m. In three wet-season months, a group foraged for insects for 31% of the day, traveled 40%, fed on plant parts 9%, and rested 16%. In the dry season, they foraged more (42%), traveled slightly less (39%), spent more time feeding (13%), and spent less time resting (3%)—related undoubtedly to an energy conservation strategy, an increase in the consumption of gum, and possibly a reduced insect abundance. Foraging success (prey capture rate) was lower in the dry season. The day is typified by a predominance of traveling and feeding (first plant resources, then animal prey) in the early hours, more resting in the middle of the day, and increased feeding again later in the afternoon, prior to going to their sleeping site. Sleeping sites are typically in tall trees with vine tangles and dense foliage.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Six groups of the Silvery Marmoset studied in forest patches in Amazonian savanna on the Rio Tapajos had 4-11 individuals. Groups had 1-2 adult females, 1-3 adult males, and various numbers of subadults, juveniles, and infants. A group studied in the Caxiuana National Forest had 6-9 individuals. At its largest, there was one adult male, two adult females, two subadults, two juveniles, and two infants. One adult female and a subadult disappeared during the study; anotherleft the group and then returned three months later. Only one female bred during the 18-month study. Home ranges of four groups were 4 ha, 5-1 ha, 9 ha, and 24 ha (a large group of 6-10 individuals). Home ranges were, to some extent, adjusted to the forest patch size, although groups traveled through corridors of bushes and trees, and even single lines of trees, to get to neighboring patches. Patches were similar in terms of availabilities of preferred fruiting trees, but space use was related to the distribution of gum sources—campinarana had the highest density of gum-producing trees. Silvery Marmosets tended to avoid edge habitat (abutting grassland), probably due to the greater risk of predation. A group of 6-9 individuals in the Caxiuana National Forest used a home range of 15-5 ha during eleven months, 24% of which overlapped with other groups. Home rangesize of the group was larger in the early and late dry season. The group traveled 630-1710 m during the day (mean 1042 m; n = 83 days), and the mean daily home range was 2-7 ha (1-4-2 ha). The group used 14 sleepingsites, with the most used sites nearer to their major food sources. The most intensively used areas were in the center of their home range and contained their main sources of gums.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Silvery Marmoset is locally common and has a comparatively large geographic distribution. It occurs in the Tapajos National Forest (600,000 ha) to the east of the Rio Tapajos, Brazil.</p> <p>Bibliography. Albernaz &amp; Magnusson (1999), Corréa (2006), Corréa et al. (2002), Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1990a, 1996), Goncalves et al. (2003), Hershkovitz (1977), Muniz et al. (1986), Omedes (1979, 1981, 1983), Omedes &amp; Carroll (1980), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Stevenson (1978), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Tavares (1999), Tavares &amp; Ferrari (2002), Veracini (1997a, 1997b, 1998, 2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD6FFC1FA3EF7896CABEC33	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD1FFC1FAA8F9DD6753EC60.text	DF668780FFD1FFC1FAA8F9DD6753EC60.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico emiliae (Thomas 1920)	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Snethlage’s Marmoset</p> <p>Mico emiliae</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Snethlage / German: Snethlage-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Snethlage Other common names: Emilia’s Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale emiliae Thomas, 1920,</p> <p>Maloca, upper Rio Curua, upper Rio Iriri, Rio Xingu, Para State, Brazil.</p> <p>Considered by P. Hershkovitz to be a dark form of Mico argentatus. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S from the Rio Iriri at least as far as the S (left) margin of the Rio Peixoto de Azevedo (E tributary of the Rio Teles Pires), the S limits are not beyond the headwaters and upper Rio Paraguay (c.14° 30’ S), the upper Rio Teles Pires evidently marks the W limit.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 19-9 cm, tail 30-8 cm; weight unknown. Snethlage’s Marmoset is similar to the Black-tailed Marmoset (M. melanurus), but with a pink, slightly pigmented muzzle and no light thigh stripe. Its shoulder and upper dorsum are silvery gray, darkening to orange-brown on the rump and outer thighs. Hairs of ventral surface are silvery pale gray. The crown has a dark blackish patch, and the brow, cheeks, and chin are whitish. Ears are large, without tufts but with thin scattered brown hairs. Arms and legs are gray- to orange-brown and whiter on the inside. Lower arms and hands and lower legs and feet are blackish brown. The tail is black except for a couple of centimeters basally, which is brownish like the rump.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Snethlage’s Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Snethlage’s Marmoset is locally common and has a comparatively large geographic distribution. It occurs in the Cristalino State Park (184,900 ha) on the right bank of the Rio Teles Pires, Brazil.</p> <p>Bibliography. de Avila-Pires (1986), Fialho (2010), Hershkovitz (1977), Martins et al. (1988), Napier (1976), Pimenta &amp; Silva (2005), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Thomas (1920).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD1FFC1FAA8F9DD6753EC60	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD1FFC1FFD0F362684BE5BC.text	DF668780FFD1FFC1FFD0F362684BE5BC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico leucippe Thomas 1922	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Golden-white Bare-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Mico leucippe</p> <p>French: Ouistiti blanc-doré / German: Goldschwanz-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi blanco Other common names: White Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mico leucippe Thomas, 1922,</p> <p>Brazil, Pimental, below mouth of Rio Jamanxim, right bank of Rio Tapajos.</p> <p>In his 1977 treatise, P. Hershkovitz regarded this species as a subspecies of M. argentatus (then considered to be a member of the genus Callithrix: C. argentata). Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S of the Rio Cupari, E of the Rio Tapajos, S to the right bank of the Rio Sao Benedito, an affluent of the Rio Teles Pires.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.20 cm, tail ¢.30 cm; weight ¢.330 g. The Goldenwhite Bare-ear Marmoset is creamy-white on the body and tail, with a pale orange or gold tone to the feet, shanks, and (to a lesser degree) hands. The face, ears, and external genitalia are hairless and pinkish-scarlet. It is distinguished from the Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmoset (M. chrysoleucos) by its untufted, almost naked ears.</p> <p>Habitat. [Lowland tropical forest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Golden-white Bare-ear Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Golden-white Bare-ear Marmoset is threatened by habitat loss. The Trans-Amazonian Highway cuts through the northern part of its distribution. There is widespread forest loss in the southern part of its known distribution, with areas suffering clear-cutting for industrial agriculture (soy). Recent surveys have increased its known distribution, and a reassessment could change the status of the Golden-white Bare-ear Marmoset to Near Threatened or Least Concern.</p> <p>Bibliography. Fialho (2010), Hershkovitz (1977), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Thomas (1922).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD1FFC1FFD0F362684BE5BC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD1FFC0FAAFF3B46DEBEC2C.text	DF668780FFD1FFC0FAAFF3B46DEBEC2C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico melanurus (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1812)	<div><p>6.</p> <p>Black-tailed Marmoset</p> <p>Mico melanurus</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a queue noire / German: Schwarzschwanz-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de cola negra</p> <p>Taxonomy. Jacchus melanurus E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted byJ. A. Allen in 1916 to Cuiaba, Mato Grosso.</p> <p>A. Humboldtis often credited in various ways with the name ofthis species, but E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is the rightful authority. Humboldt in 1812 (dated 1811 but actually published a year later) credited Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for his 1812 publication in Tome 19 of Annales du Muséum d Histoire Naturelle, where this species’ name first appeared. Humboldt’s nomenclatural act was a “name combination” in which he combined the name given by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire with the genus Simia. In his 1977 treatise, P. Hershkovitz regarded this species to be a subspecies of M. argentatus (then considered to be a member of the genus Callithrix. C. argentata). There is some regional variation. In certain areas, individuals have chestnut on the back and the proximal parts of the arms. Others are much less lightly colored, with the mantle and arms being yellowish. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. CS Brazil, E Bolivia, and NW Paraguay, E of the Rio Mamoré in NE Bolivia, in Brazil E to the S of the Serra das Pacaas Novos and E of the upper Rio Ji-Parana in Rondonia State, into Mato Grosso State to the S of the headwaters of the rios Roosevelt and Aripuana, but extending N between the rios Aripuana and Juruena to the headwaters of the Rio Sucunduri (8° 21° S), to the S through the Pantanal of Mato Grosso and SE Bolivia into the NW Paraguayan Chaco.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—-body 22-24 cm,tail ¢.30-34 cm; weight ¢.330 g. The crown, hindpart of back, and hindlegs of the Black-tailed Marmoset are dark brown, and the underside is yellowish-white or fawn-white. The mantle is drab to grayish brown. The chest and neck are buffy to creamy, and the belly and inner sides of thighs and arms are buffy to ocherous orange. There is a distinct yellowish or orange hip patch and thigh stripe (front and inner thigh). The tail is black. The face is black, and ears are hairless and pigmented asis the face.</p> <p>Habitat. Predominantly lowland rainforest and dry, vine, and savanna forest. The Black-tailed Marmoset prefers areas of forest with dense undergrowth. Individuals occasionally descend to the ground and cross open grassland to move from one clump of trees to another. It is found in tall humid forest in northern Mato Grosso and southern Rondonia, Brazil, and in flooded savanna of the Pantanal in the “cordilleras” (forest patches on raised ground). In Bolivia,it is found in primary and secondary humid forest, vine forest, “Chiquitano dry forest” (tropical dry broadleaf forest), gallery forest and forest patches in the flooded savannas. In Paraguay, the Black-tailed Marmoset occupies scrub forest, with a canopy of 5-10 m and tall forest, where they are more common, with a canopy of 20-25 m and emergent trees at 30 m, in the Chaco. They have been observed at elevations of450-1100 m in the region of the Serrania de Huanchaca in eastern Bolivia. There, they evidently prefer low-vine forest on well-drained soils on slopes of the escarpment.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Black-tailed Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. Minimum interbirth interval of the Black-tailed Marmoset is five months, and females resume their ovarian cycles within two weeks of giving birth. When mating, a male and female approach each other, and nuzzle and sniff each other’s genital areas, while tonguing and lip-smacking, which may continue during copulation. Soliciting is by approaching, lowering the head, and tonguing and lip-smacking. They coil theirtails when copulating. Infants are carried by the female during the first 1-6 days, after which the male and other group members also carry them. Infants are carried by the breeding pair for most of the first two weeks; older siblings become primary carriers after that. Time spent being carried drops when infants are 3—4 weeks old. At four weeks, infants begin to eat solid food. At eight weeks, infants are independent ofcarriers 90% ofthe time.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes recorded in the Paraguayan Chaco were 5-14 individuals. Two groups recorded in the mountainous region of Huanchaca of eastern Bolivia had 7-12 individuals. Another eight groups seen in the same region had 4-9 individuals (mean 6-2, n = 5). Grooming and playing are the main social interactions. Young Black-tailed Marmosets begin grooming themselves at 3—4 weeks of age and other group members at 5-6 weeks. Group interactions produce aggressive/defensive postures and expressions, ear-flicking, the slit stare (eyelid halfclosed), “Arch bristle movement” (back arched,stiff posture, pilo-erection), and genital presenting with raised tails. The Black-tailed Marmoset has not been studied in the wild.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Black-tailed Marmoset is known to occur in a number of protected areas: Noel Kempff Mercado, Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco, and Otuquis national parks, San Matias Integrated Management Natural Area, and Rios Blanco y Negro Wildlife Reserve in Bolivia; Pantanal Matogrossense and Chapada dos Guimaraes national parks and Taiama and Serra das Araras ecological stations in Brazil; and Defensores del Chaco National Park in Paraguay.</p> <p>Bibliography. Allen (1916b), Alperin (1993), Braza &amp; Garcia (1988), Brown &amp; Rumiz (1986), Buchanan-Smith (1984), Hershkovitz (1977), Noronha, Silva et al. (2007, 2008), Noronha, Spironello &amp; Ferreira (2008), Omedes (1979, 1981, 1985), Porcel et al. (2010), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Stallings (1985), Stallings &amp; Mittermeier (1983), Stevenson (1978a), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Wallace, Painter, Rumiz &amp; Taber (2000), Wallace, Painter &amp; Taber (1998).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD1FFC0FAAFF3B46DEBEC2C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD0FFC3FF26F36E6C42E558.text	DF668780FFD0FFC3FF26F36E6C42E558.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico intermedius (Hershkovitz 1977)	<div><p>7.</p> <p>Rio Aripuana Marmoset</p> <p>Mico intermedius</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de I'Aripuana / German: Rio-Aripuana-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Aripuané Other common names: Aripuana Marmoset, Hershkovitz's Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix humeralifer intermedius Hershkovitz, 1977,</p> <p>Brazil, near mouth of Rio Guariba, left bank of Rio Aripuana, south-eastern Amazonas.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon between rios Roosevelt and Aripuana, the S limits are not known, but probably around the headwaters of the Aripuana and Roosevelt.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-24 cm, tail 32-40 cm; weight ¢.280 g (males) and c.310 g (females). The forequarters of the Rio Aripuana Marmoset are whitishsilvery, whitish, or yellowish-white, and fur becomes irregularly spotted with chestnut on the posterior one-half of the forequarters. Upper part of the chest is creamy-white, underparts are pale orange, the thigh stripe is golden-yellow, and the rump (including the base of the tail) is dark brown. The tail is pale off-white and not ringed. Face and ears are pink or variably pigmented with gray, and the crown is grayish. There are rudimentary white ear tufts, originating from the external surfaces only.</p> <p>Habitat. Dense primary and secondary rainforest, with distinct wet (December—March) and dry (May—October) seasons. A field study of the Rio Aripuana Marmoset carried out at Aripuana, on the left bank of the Rio Aripuana in 1978 and 1979, found that they were more common in disturbed forests patches, with denser understories and vine tangles, resulting from tree falls or human disturbances. They are scarce in riparian flooded forest and tall forest with minimal and sparse undergrowth. One group was observed in white-sand forest (smaller-leaved, with a floristic community quite distinct from the surrounding clay-soil forest).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Rio Aripuana Marmoset eats mostly small and sweet fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey. Fruits contributed 32-94% of the plant part of the diet each month, exudates 6-59%, and flowers and nectar 4:5-18%, just from April to September (end of the dry season). During a twelve-month period, a group of Rio Aripuana Marmosets fed on fruits of 52 plants in 24 families. Among the most important families providing fruits were Moraceae (contributing 14 species, including Pseudolmedia, Naucleopsis, Sorocea, Ficus), Urticaceae (Cecropia, Pourouma), Burseraceae (Protium, Tetragastris), and Fabaceae (Inga). Species of three genera, Pourouma, Inga, and Cecropia, had long, piecemeal, fruiting seasons and provided fruits for the entire year and, in many months, were predominant in the diets. Cecropia was particularly important during the dry season when fruits were otherwise scarce compared with the early and middle wet season. Flowers and nectar of Symphonia globulifera were important in the dry season from July to September. Rio Aripuana Marmosets gouged tree trunks, branches, and lianas (“cipos”) throughout the year, but exudates were predominant in the diet in the last months of the wet season (March-April) when fruits were exceptionally scarce. Exudate sources included 34 species in twelve families. Fourteen were legumes (e.g. Enterolobium, Hymenolobium, Parkia, Diplotropis, Inga, and Acacia), and species of Anacardiaceae (cashew family: Anacardium, Spondias, Tapirira) and Meliaceae (Trichilia guianensis) also were important sources of exudate. Depending on the month, 25-34% of their daily activity was spent searching for and feeding on small animal prey. Rio Aripuana Marmosets eat insects, spiders, small lizards, and frogs. Insect prey include Orthoptera, notably Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers), Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers), Gryllidae (crickets), Mantodea (praying mantises), Isoptera (termites), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles), Hemiptera (cicadas and others), Blattaria (cockroaches), and Phasmida (stick insects). When searching for prey they move slowly through dense vegetation, searching clumps of dead leaves, humus clumps at the bases of epiphytes, and under leaves along branches (particularly for grasshoppers resting during the day). Occasionally, Rio Aripuana Marmosets go to the ground and search stealthily in the leaf litter. They also forage above swarms of army ants (Eciton burchellii cupiens), staying at the head of the swarm, picking offfleeing and disturbed insects.</p> <p>Breeding. Despite the supernumerary adults in each group, breeding is generally restricted to a single female at any one time. In the single study of a group of Rio Aripuana Marmosets, a female gave birth to three sets of twins in a year: early September (early wet season), early February (mid- to late wet season), and mid-July (dry season). Infants in three other groups were seen in August-September and January-February. Interbirth intervals for the female that produced twins three times were 148-162 days and 154-160 days, which is only a little longer than the gestation period of ¢.150 days. Births twice a year would seem to be the norm. One adult male carried infants on the day of their birth. Other adult group members carried infants as soon as two days after their birth. Two males, however, were particularly active in carrying the twins, and three males were seen copulating with the breeding female, indicating the possibility of polyandry rather than a monogamous breeding system. After about three weeks, infants were carried separately and began to spend time off of their adult carriers. Parking of infants was seen occasionally.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Rio Aripuana Marmosets begin their day ¢.30 minutes to one hour after sunrise and return to their sleeping sites at ¢.16:00 h, sometimes later and sometimes earlier, especially when it is raining. Sleeping sites include dense liana tangles, low bushy vegetation, low trees with dense crowns, and occasionally tree holes. Heights of sleeping sites varied from c.50 cm above the ground to 20 m up in the canopy. On average, individuals spent 38% of their day traveling, 30% foraging for animal prey, 18% foraging on plant foods (fruits, exudates, or flowers), and 14% resting and engaged in social activities, such as grooming.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home range size of one group of Rio Aripuana Marmosets that was studied over a full year was 28-2 ha, with monthly sizes from 11-5 ha to 21-5 ha. Less than one-half of the home range (44%) was used 90% of the time. Daily movements were 772-2115 m, with overall monthly means of 1200-1774 m; the group visited between one-third and a little less than one-half of its home range each day. Group size was 8-15 individuals, with a mean of 11-5 individuals among eight groups. Groups include 1-4 adult males, 1-5 adult females, and varying numbers of subadults, juveniles, and infants. Encounters between groups at the borders of their home ranges are characterized by calling, displaying, chasing, and scent marking. Displays, sometimes involving the majority of individuals in each group facing each other a few meters apart, include frowning (lowering the head and eyebrows and staring), rapid scratching of the tail (held in one hand and scratched with the other), and tail-raising (presenting their genitalia with the tail raised and looking back toward the opponents). Agitation with much long calling is typical of these encounters, which can last up to 2-3 hours, with intervals of 5-15 minutes when respective group members come together and rest and groom. Densities of the Rio Aripuana Marmoset in tall forest with sparse undergrowth were 0-44-0-57 groups/km?, whereas in areas with patches of disturbed successional forest with denser vegetation in the understory, they were more abundant (3-1-4-7 groups/km?).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cuiaba-Porto Velho Highway bisects the distribution of the Rio Aripuana Marmoset, east to west, and is resulting in a steady destruction of the forests between the rios Aripuana and Roosevelt where it lives. Urbanization, logging, and cattle ranching are destroying and fragmenting forests of the entire northern Mato Grosso State. The Rio Aripuana Marmoset does not occur in any protected area.</p> <p>Bibliography. Hershkovitz (1977), Rylands (1981, 1982, 1984, 1986a, 1986b, 1989b, 1990), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD0FFC3FF26F36E6C42E558	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD3FFC3FAD6FC7F68E6E903.text	DF668780FFD3FFC3FAD6FC7F68E6E903.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico nigriceps (Ferrari & Lopes 1992)	<div><p>9.</p> <p>Black-headed Marmoset</p> <p>Mico nigriceps</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a téte noire / German: Schwarzkopf-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de cabeza negra</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix nigriceps Ferrari &amp; Lopes, 1992,</p> <p>Lago dos Reis (= Lago Paraiso, 7° 31’ S, 62° 52° W), 17 km east of Humaita, Amazonas, Brazil, on the TransAmazonian Highway BR-230 (right, or east, bank of the Rio Madeira).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon between the Rio dos Marmelos in the N and E, the Rio Madeira in the W, and the Rio Jiparana in the S.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 19-22 cm, tail 31-33 cm; weight 330-400 g (mean 370 g). The fur of the Black-headed Marmoset is mainly brownish-gray above with a dark brown rump and yellowish-orange underparts. Hindlegs are orange-red, and a thigh stripe is present. The crown, forehead, hands, feet, and tail are black. The face is hairless and mottled, and there are no ear tufts. Males have a white, hairless scrotum.</p> <p>Habitat. Lowland rainforest and forest edge.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Black-headed Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. The Black-headed Marmoset has an extremely limited distribution, which is subject to constant human disturbance. Its natural distribution is little more than 10,000 km?, one of the smallest of any Amazonian primate species and potentially one of the most precarious. The area is currently undergoing rapid colonization, with access by paved highway from the Rondonia State, and is traversed by the Trans-Amazonian Highway. Principle threats include widespread logging, gold mining, and cattle ranching. While Black-headed Marmosets are able to adapt to habitat disturbance in the short term, continued deforestation will eventually be deleterious to the population as a whole.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ferrari (1993c, 1994, 2009b), Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1992), Ferrari &amp; Queiroz (1994), Ferrari et al. (1993), Messias et al. (2005), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD3FFC3FAD6FC7F68E6E903	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD3FFC3FFDEFA706857E359.text	DF668780FFD3FFC3FFDEFA706857E359.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico rondoni Ferrari 2010	<div><p>8.</p> <p>Rondon’s Marmoset</p> <p>Mico rondoni</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Rondon / German: Rondonia-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Rondon</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mico rondoni Ferrari et al., 2010,</p> <p>Cachoeira Samuel (now the Samuel Hydroelectric reservoir) on the Rio Jamari, a right bank tributary of the Rio Madeira, municipality of Candeias do Jamari, Rondonia State, Brazil (08° 45° S, 63° 28° W).</p> <p>Mico rondoni was first described in 1985 as an isolated population of M. emiliae, which otherwise occurs in southern Mato Grosso State but it is now considered a distinct species. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon,restricted to the Rio Mamoré to the W, Rio Madeira to the N, Rio Ji-Parana to the E, and the Serra dos Pacaas Novos to the S.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-24 cm, tail 29-5-33 cm; weight 326-9 g (range 250-390 g, n = 6). Rondon’s Marmoset has an overall silvery-pale gray color and blackish hairs on the forehead and sides of the face (lighter and denser closer to the ears and sides of the neck). It has a distinct whitish patch that contrasts with the crown and is restricted to the center of the forehead; blackish crown pelage extends to the back of the head and laterally to the front of the ear. The lower back and proximal parts of the legs are grayish-brown, darkening to almost black at the base ofthe tail, with hairs that are reddish-brown basally, darkening abruptly in the medial band, and then lighter toward the apex. Pelage of the legs darkens gradually to reddish-brown on the shin and blackish on the ankle. Hands and feet are dark.</p> <p>Habitat. Tall evergreen terra firma rainforest in the southern Amazon forest. As is true of all marmosets, Rondon’s Marmosets prefer dense understories, successional forest around tree falls, and areas disturbed by human activities.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Rondon’s Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey. It has an enlarged and complex cecum, believed to relate to the consumption of plant exudates (gums).</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Rondon’s Marmoset is sympatric throughout its range with the slightly smaller Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin (Sagu:nus weddelli). They travel together ¢.40% of the time, with Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin moving and foraging at heights of ¢.6 m above the ground, and Rondon’s Marmoset active at higher levels, generally c.11 m above the ground. Fruit parts of their diets undoubtedly overlap, but each has different foraging strategies for small animal prey; Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins forage at lower levels in specific sites (e.g. holes and crevices), whereas Rondon’s Marmosets do more foliage gleaning and looking along branches for exposed insects higher up in the lower canopy. A major dietary difference between the two species, however,is the adaptation of Rondon’s Marmoset, and other like species of Mico, to gum feeding by gouging tree trunks, branches, and vines to stimulate gum flow. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins eat the abundant gums exuded from bean pods of the emergent leguminous Parkia pendula and also eat gum from the holes that Rondon’s Marmosets gouge. Rondon’s Marmosets also eat gum from the bean pods. To what extent this interaction may have negative consequences for the marmosets is not known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Major threats to Rondon’s Marmoset include forest destruction from the major colonization program in Rondonia since 1980s and dam construction. It is rarer than Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin and is rare or absent in much of its geographic distribution where there is extensive deforestation, especially along the BR-364 Interstate Highway. This rarity may be because of sympatry and competition with Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin. Despite the apparent ability of Rondon’s Marmosets to tolerate habitat disturbance, it may be vulnerable to effects of human colonization, and it may in fact be the most threatened species of Mico. Faunal rescue for the Samuel Hydroelectric Dam on the Rio Jamari resulted in the discovery of Rondon’s Marmoset, and two more dams are being built on the Rio Madeira upriver within its distribution.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ferrari (2004), Ferrari &amp; Martins (1992), Ferrari et al. (2010), Hershkovitz (1977), Lopes &amp; Ferrari (1994), Nagamachi et al. (1996, 1997, 1999), Martins et al. (1987), Nagamachi et al. (1994), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Sena et al. (2002), Vivo (1985, 1991).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD3FFC3FFDEFA706857E359	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD3FFC2FAD1F6496C45E236.text	DF668780FFD3FFC2FAD1F6496C45E236.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico marcai (Alperin 1993)	<div><p>10.</p> <p>Marca’s Marmoset</p> <p>Mico marcai</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Marca / German: Marca-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Marca</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix argentata marcai Alperin, 1993,</p> <p>Brazil, mouth of the Rio Castanho (= Rio Roosevelt), a left-bank tributary of the Rio Aripuana, Amazonas State, Brazil.</p> <p>Known only from three skins in the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, known only from its type locality.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.22 cm, tail ¢.36 cm; weight 280-310 g. Marca’s Marmoset is brindled brownish dorsally, with a long-haired, light ocher mantle. Arms are somewhat paler than the body. Legs, tail, and head are chestnut colored. There is no white thigh stripe or white mark on the vertex. Skin on the face is dark and depigmented around the muzzle. Marca’s Marmoset differs from the Golden-white Bare-ear Marmoset (M. leucippe) and the Silvery Marmoset (M. argentatus) in the distinct color of the mantle, from the Black-tailed Marmoset (M. melanurus) in not having the white hip patches, and from Snethlage’s Marmoset (M. emiliae) in the pale hands and feet and dark brown forehead.</p> <p>Habitat. There is no specific information for this species, but predictably, it should occur in lowland terra firma forest, most particularly in the vicinity of tree falls and secondary growth (successional forest).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Marca’s Marmoset has never been observed in the wild.</p> <p>Bibliography. Alperin (1993, 2002), Rylands et al. (2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD3FFC2FAD1F6496C45E236	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FF7876987E24E.text	DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FF7876987E24E.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico acariensis (M.van Roosmalen, T.van Roosmalen, R.A.Mittermeier & Rylands 2000)	<div><p>12.</p> <p>Rio Acari Marmoset</p> <p>Mico acariensis</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de I’Acari / German: Rio-Acari-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Acari</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix acariensis van Roosmalen et al, 2000,</p> <p>Brazil, Amazonas, a small settlement on the right bank of the lower Rio Acari, close to the confluence with the Rios Sucunduri and Canuma, Amazonas State, south-central Amazonia, Brazil (05° 07° 08” S, 60° 01’ 14” W).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon along the right bank of the lower Rio Acari and through the interfluvium of the rios Acari (in the W) and Sucunduri (to the E), S perhaps to the distribution of the Black-tailed Marmoset (M. melanurus) between the rios Aripuana and Juruena.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.22 cm, tail ¢.38 cm; weight ¢.350 g. The Rio Acari Marmoset is snowy-white on the upper body, distally grading into gray to dark gray mixed with orange on the back and with an orange stripe running down to each knee. Dorsal sides of arms and hands are gray mixed with orange, ventral sides of the lower arms are white with orange, and ventral sides of the legs are white grading distally into orange, with bright orange inner surfaces. The neck and chest are white, the belly is bright orange, and the tail is black with a bright orange tip. The face is naked and pink or flesh colored, with black patches between the eyes, on the sides of the nostrils, and on the lower lip and chin. The nose has a narrow triangular patch on it. Eyes are orange-brown. Genitals are non-pigmented and exposed.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland terra firma forest; secondary rainforest surrounding plantations and manioc fields.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Rio Acari Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Additional research is needed to clarify the conservation status of the Rio Acari Marmoset.</p> <p>Bibliography. Noronha, Silva et al. (2007, 2008), Noronha, Spironello &amp; Ferreira (2008), van Roosmalen et al. (2000), Rylands etal. (2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FF7876987E24E	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD2FFC2FA30F8066868EDE8.text	DF668780FFD2FFC2FA30F8066868EDE8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico chrysoleucos (Wagner 1842)	<div><p>14.</p> <p>Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Mico chrysoleucos</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a pieds jaunes / German: \WeilRgoldenes Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi blanco y dorado Other common names: Gold-and-white Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale chrysoleucos Wagner, 1842,</p> <p>Brazil, Borba, lower Rio Madeira, Amazonas.</p> <p>In his 1977 treatise, P. Hershkovitz regarded this species to be a subspecies of M. humeralifer (then of the genus Callithrix. C. humeralifera). There is some slight regional variation in the intensity of the yellow on the tail and posterior part of the back. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S of the Rio Amazonas between the rios Madeira and lower Aripuana in the W and the Rio Canuma (= Cunuma) in the E.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-24 cm, tail 32-40 cm; weight ¢.280 g (males) and c.310 g (females). The Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmosetis yellowish-white, with pale golden or orange extremities and underparts. The tail is faintly banded with a darker shade of gold. The head is always white (without a crown patch), the face and ears are pink, and ear tufts are white and fan-like.</p> <p>Habitat. Secondary lowland rainforest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Information on the conservation status of the Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmoset remains scant although it is thought to be threatened by development along the Trans-Amazonian Highway, which has opened up its hitherto inaccessible range to exploitation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Hershkovitz (1977), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Silva &amp; Noronha (1996, 2000), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD2FFC2FA30F8066868EDE8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FFD5B6C28E849.text	DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FFD5B6C28E849.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico manicorensis (M.van Roosmalen, T.van Roosmalen, R.A.Mittermeier & Rylands 2000)	<div><p>11.</p> <p>Rio Manicoré Marmoset</p> <p>Mico manicorensis</p> <p>French: Ouistiti du Manicoré / German: Rio-Manicoré-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Manicore Other common names: Manicoré Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix manicorensis van Roosmalen et al., 2000,</p> <p>Seringal Sao Luis, east bank of the middle Rio Madeira, in the vicinity of the town of Manicoré, Amazonas State, Brazil, south-central Amazonia (05° 50° 28” S, 61° 18’ 19” W,altitude 45m).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, W bank of the lower Rio Aripuana from the mouth, W as far as the Rio Manicoré, S toward its headwaters, S limits are probably the headwaters of the rios Mataura or Araud, c.7° S.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body c.22 cm, tail ¢.38 cm; weight ¢.350 g. The upper body of the Rio Manicoré Marmoset is mottled silvery-white and gray, giving an almost striped effect on the back and rump. Underparts are whitish-yellow to orange and the tail is black. There is a light gray cap on the head. Outer surfaces of the thighs are dark reddy-brown, contrasting with the pale body. The face is naked and orange with dark brown around the eyes and nostrils and on the lower lip and chin. Genitals are not pigmented.</p> <p>Habitat. Dense primary and secondary rainforest; “seringal” (agroforestry of rubber trees, Brazil nut trees, wild cacao, and other fruit trees, along with numerous trees of subsistence and commercial interest to the local communities).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Rio Manicoré Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Lust. Surveys are needed to better understand the geographic range and to clarify the conservation status of the Rio Manicoré Marmoset.</p> <p>Bibliography. van Roosmalen et al. (2000), Rylands et al. (2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD2FFC2FF3FFD5B6C28E849	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD2FFC2FA37FD8768A5E7D6.text	DF668780FFD2FFC2FA37FD8768A5E7D6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico mauesi (R.A.Mittermeier, Schwarz & Ayres 1992)	<div><p>13.</p> <p>Maués Marmoset</p> <p>Mico mauesi</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Maués / German: Maués-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Maués</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix mauesi Mittermeier, Schwarz &amp; Ayres, 1992,</p> <p>Brazil, west bank of the Rio Maués-Acu, opposite the town of Maueés, S of the Rio Amazonas, between the rios Madeira and Tapajos, Amazonas State (03° 23’ S, 57° 46’ W).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon along the left bank of the rios Maués and Parauari, W as far as the Parana Uraria and Rio Abacaxis, S to beyond the headwaters of the Rio Abacaxis, extending to the left bank of the Rio Tapajos, and W of the Rio Abacaxis to the Rio Sucunduri.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—-body 20-23 cm, tail 34-38 cm; weight 315-400 g. Maués Marmoset is chocolate-brown above, with faint grayish striping on the back, silvery thigh stripes, and an orange tinted underside. There is a black circumbuccal zone on the face, which is otherwise pink with silvery-brown cheek patches. Ears are surrounded by heavy tufts of silvery-brown fur that, unusually, are held erect; the overall impression has been described as “neatly trimmed.” Feet have a faint orange tint, and the tail has a suggestion of narrow white rings.</p> <p>Habitat. Dense primary rainforest, some secondary forest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Maués Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Additional research is needed to clarify the conservation status of the Maués Marmoset.</p> <p>Bibliography. Mittermeier, Schwarz &amp; Ayres (1992), Nagamachi et al. (1994), Noronha, Silva et al. (2008), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Silva &amp; Noronha (1995, 2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD2FFC2FA37FD8768A5E7D6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC6F9126853E84A.text	DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC6F9126853E84A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico humeralifer (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1812)	<div><p>16.</p> <p>Santarém Marmoset</p> <p>Mico humeralifer</p> <p>French: Quistiti a camail / German: Weil3schulter-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi deSantarém Other common names: Black-and-white Tassel-ear Marmoset, Tassel-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. [acchus humeralifer E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1958 to Paricatuba, left bank near the mouth of the Rio Tapajos.</p> <p>A. Humboldt is often credited in various ways with the name of this species, but E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is the rightful authority. Humboldt in 1812 (dated 1811 but actually published a year later) credited Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for his 1812 publication in Tome 19 of Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, where this species’ name first appeared. Humboldt’s nomenclatural act was a “name combination” in which he combined the name given by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire with the genus Simia. A pale orange-brown marmoset formerly in the collection of the Belém Primate Center but otherwise very similar to M. humeralifer in fur color and pattern was obtained from the Rio Arapiuns in the northern part of the distribution. It was believed to be merely a chromogenic anomaly. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S of the Rio Amazonas between the Rio Maués and probably its tributary the Rio Parauari in the W, and the Rio Tapajos in the E; the S limit is not known but may be in the region of the Rio Parauari.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 18-21 cm, tail 31-33 cm; weight mean c.475 g (males, n = 15) and ¢.472 + 26 g (females, n = 13). The dorsum of the Santarém Marmosetis black with white flecks, giving an overall marbled impression. The underside is sparsely furred with orange, and shoulders, arms, and crown are gray-brown to white. There is a white thigh stripe, hindlegs are brownish-black, and the tail is black with a suggestion of narrow silvery-white rings. Fronts of the crown and forehead are blackish, with a zone extending down the cheeks and expanding across the nose and jaw angles; sides of the crown have short, silvery hairs. The face is pigmented (yellow-brown), and there are long silvery-gray ear tufts that hang from the rims in the form of tassels and are continuous with the mantle hairs.</p> <p>Habitat. Secondary lowland rainforest. The Santarém Marmoset prefers dense, viny vegetation and river edges. Observations in the Amazonia National Park, Para State, noted its presence mostly in secondary growth forest and not at all in flooded forest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Santarém Marmoset eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. Gestation is evidently less than 131 days, based on an interbirth interval in captivity of this duration. Weights of captive neonates are 33-37 g. Young feed independently by the end of three months, and reach adult weight and size at 9-10 months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The [UCN Red List. Precise information on the conservation status of the Santarém Marmoset remains scant although it is thought to be threatened by development along the Trans-Amazonian Highway, which has opened up its previously inaccessible habitats to exploitation. It occurs in Amazonia National Park.</p> <p>Bibliography. Branch (1983), Hershkovitz (1977), Muniz et al. (1986), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC6F9126853E84A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC4FEE06CE7E6C2.text	DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC4FEE06CE7E6C2.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mico saterei (Silva Jr. & Noronha 1998)	<div><p>15.</p> <p>Sateré Marmoset</p> <p>Mico saterei</p> <p>French: Ouistiti des Sateré / German: Sateré-Seidenaffchen / Spanish: Titi de Sateré</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix saterei Silva &amp; Noronha 1998,</p> <p>Brazil, Amazonas, mouth of the Rio Canuma, right bank of lower Rio Canuma, in front of its confluence with the Parana Uraria.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon in the interfluvium of the rios Abacaxis (in the E) and Canuma-Sucunduri (in the W), right bank tributaries of the Rio Madeira.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.20 cm, tail ¢.37 cm; weight ¢.430 g. Sateré Marmoset is a most unusual-looking marmoset. It lacks ear tufts despite being surrounded by marmosets that have them (Santarém Marmoset, M. humeralifer, Golden-white Tassel-ear Marmoset, M. chrysoleucos, and Maués Marmoset, M. mauesi). Sateré Marmoset is dark reddish-brown on the back, tail, hands, and feet, with a strongly contrasting, bright whitish-yellow or golden-orange mantle and underparts. The nape is silvery, and there is a well-marked blackish-gray crown patch. The face and ears are naked, being an unpigmented pink. Genitalia are bright orange, unique among the callitrichids. Individuals of both sexes have unusual lateral pendular skin appendages. In the male, this is a narrowing of the inferior part of the scrotal lobes. In the females, they are in the inguinal region, anterior to the vaginal gap. Adult genital skin in both sexes has nodular structures that are glandular.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary terra firma and igapo (seasonally inundated forest).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Sateré Marmoset eats succulent fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Additional research is needed to clarity the conservation status of the Sateré Marmoset.</p> <p>Bibliography. Rylands et al. (1993, 2009), Silva &amp; Noronha (1996, 1998, 2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDDFFCDFFC4FEE06CE7E6C2	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDCFFCFFF32F760687DE6A6.text	DF668780FFDCFFCFFF32F760687DE6A6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callimico goeldii (Thomas 1904)	<div><p>17.</p> <p>Goeldi’s Monkey</p> <p>Callimico goeldii</p> <p>French: Callimico / German: Springtamarin / Spanish: Titi de Goeldi Other common names: Callimico, Goeldi's Marmoset, Goeldi’'s Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas goeldii Thomas, 1904,</p> <p>Acre, Rio Yaco, Brazil.</p> <p>Currently monotypic, but the genetic structure of the founder stock of captive individuals indicates that more than one cryptic subspecies or species may be represented.</p> <p>Distribution. Upper Amazon in S Colombia, W Brazil, E Peru, and N Bolivia, from the Rio Caqueta in Colombia, S through the Peruvian Amazon and the extreme W Brazilian Amazon into the Pando region of Bolivia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 19-25 cm, tail 26-35 cm; weight 366 g (males, n = 3) and 355 g (females, n = 5). Weights are higher in captivity: 450-600 g. Goeldi’s Monkey is identified by its long, disheveled, coal-black fur, which is broken only by a few buffcolored marks on the nape and, in some individuals, similarly hued rings at the base of the slightly bushy tail. There is a heavy cape over the head and shoulders. The head is rounded, jaws are somewhat protruded, and the nose is notably pug-like. Skin oflips, snout, rims of ears, hands, and feet is black.</p> <p>Habitat. Goeldi’s Monkey travels and forages low in the forest and prefers dense undergrowth. It uses mostly primary (mature) forest with a dense understory, but also secondary forest and, importantly, bamboo forest and stream edge where fungi are more abundant. They are found only where bamboo forest is present, and their highest densities (4-5 groups/km®) are in north-eastern Bolivia where bamboo forestis abundant. Seasonal change in habitat use has been recorded in north-western Bolivia. In the dry season, they tend to use forest with Heliconia (Heliconiaceae) dominating the understory and bamboo thickets, probably tracking abundance of small prey and searching for fungi. Goeldi’s Monkey is an understory specialist and is seen at heights of 4-5 m above the forest floor. It rarely goes up to the forest canopy and never to the upper canopy. Ofthe callitrichids,it is the strongest leaper and has the most evident anatomical adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping between small trees,large tree trunks, and lianas at these low heights (long hindlimbs and modifications of the ankle and shoulders for leaping, dissipating compressive forces, and holding onto vertical supports).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Goeldi’s Monkeys eat fruit, gum, fungi, and small animals. Annually, fruit comprises ¢.29% of the diet, less than the sympatric tamarins (saddle-back tamarins 49% and Red-bellied Tamarins, Saguinus labiatus, 58%). This disparity is because of Goeldi’s Monkey's propensity to eat fungi, not just as a fallback food when fruit is scarce but also throughout the year. Fruit contributes more than 20% of the diet in the wet season in September—April, more than 40% in January-March, more than 70% in February, but only 3% in May. Goeldi’s Monkey eats fruits from more than 50 species, but it relies on relatively few species in certain months. At one site in north-western Bolivia, Inga thibaudiana (Fabaceae) was a key resource at the end of the wet season (January-February), Leonia glycycarpa (Violaceae) in March, Celtis iguanaea (Ulmaceae) in the early dry season (April-May), Cecropia sciadophylla (Urticaceae) in the peak of the dry season (August-September), Pourouma (Urticaceae) in October and December, and Micropholis (Sapotaceae) in November, the early wet to middle season. Gums are eaten sporadically, including the spontaneous exudation from bean pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae). Fungi are a staple and include the fruiting bodies of five species: three basidiomycete jelly ear fungi, Auricularia auricula, A. delicata, and A. cornea (Auriculariaceae) found on rotting wood (fallen tree trucks and branches), and two species of ascomycete bamboo fungi, Ascopolyporus polyporoides and A. polychrous (Clavicipitaceae), which produce thin, rubbery sporocarps with a tough outer layer and a clear gelatinous interior on the culms of Guadua weberbauer: (a dominant species in forests of northern Bolivia). Fungi are eaten throughout the year but are especially important in the dry season when they contribute ¢.40% of the diet (63% has been recorded for July). Goeldi’s Monkey is more insectivorous than the tamarins with which it associates. Eating insects and other small arthropods (excluding foraging for them) comprises 20% or more ofits feeding time in eight months of the year—with a high in December at b1%—and neverless than 10%. Orthopterans (generally large; 2:5-6 cm in length) are predominant, comprising 41% ofthe insect diet. Smaller numbers ofstick insects, scorpions, spiders, cicadas, mantids, cockroaches, and moths are also eaten. Groups of Goeldi’s Monkey forage in the understory on thin branches and in the leaf litter on the ground, using pounce and capture techniques in open substrates, similar to the mustached tamarins that travel and forage above them. It does not search in holes and crevices—sites favored by saddle-back tamarins. Small lizards, frogs, toads, and bird eggs are also eaten, and being close to the ground, Goeldi’s Monkey finds more of these prey than do either of the sympatric tamarins higher up in the forest.</p> <p>Breeding. Singleton births to a single breeding female in each group are typical. Physiological reproductive suppression of subordinate females typical of marmosets and tamarins is absent in Goeldi’s Monkey. In the wild,it is possible that about one-third of groups have two breeding females. There can be more than one adult male in a group, indicating that the mating system may be monogamous or polyandrous, and polygyny is a possibility in groups with two breeding females. It is unknown if the two breeding females are mother and daughter, or if there is a reduced survival rate of infants in these cases. Female Goeldi’s Monkeys breed twice a year, having postpartum ovarian cycles allowing for pregnancy shortly after giving birth. Copulation has been recorded about three weeks after the female has given birth, and males may show mate guarding, traveling close to the female at this time. Births in one group occurred in February—-March (second half of the wet season) and late August (end of the dry season). The interbirth interval is about six months. The average ovarian cycle lasts ¢.24 days. In captivity, gestation lasts 151-152 days. Fully furred newborns (45-66 g) are about 10% of their mother’s weight. In the wild, weaning begins at 3-5 months, but nursing continues for about five months. The mother carries her infant exclusively for the first 3—4 weeks, but subsequently all group members carry and eventually (seen when the infant was as young as 26 days old) share food with it. In the first month, the infant is carried continuously, but in the second month, it is carried for c.60-65% of the time, occasionally being forced off the back ofits carrier. At 2-5 months, the infant leaves the carrier for brief excursions on its own. Group members provide food items to the infants. Juveniles (seven months) sometimes try to carry an infant, but they have insufficient strength. Juveniles pass through a stage of robbing food until they are skilled in finding and catching it themselves. In captive groups, sexual maturity is reached at ¢.57 weeks (48 weeks for one individual in the study), similar to lion tamarins (Leontopithecus) but earlier than other callitrichids (16-21 months). Infant and juvenile Goeldi’s Monkeys grow faster than other callitrichids, perhaps because the mother is suckling only one infant at a time.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Goeldi’s Monkey groups leave their sleeping sites at 06:15-07:30 h, and end their day at ¢.17:00 h, sometimes as late as 18:00 h, resting and scanning until entering a sleeping site around sunset. Sleeping sites are typically vine tangles and dense vegetation at 10 m or higher above the forest floor. Their overall activity budget, recorded in a long-term study in north-western Bolivia, was: resting 66%, traveling 17%, feeding 9%, foraging 6%, and other behaviors 2%. Goeldi’s Monkey scans more when resting (87%) compared with saddle-back tamarins (71%) that tend to use canopy levels a little above them and Red-bellied Tamarins (66%) that occur even higher in the forest.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Goeldi’s Monkeys live in small groups (4-5 ind/group; range 2-12) and have home ranges larger than 100 ha. Three groups studied in the Pando region over ten years had home ranges of 150 ha, 114 ha, and more than 80 ha. The largest of these home ranges covered those of five mixed-species groups of Red-bellied Tamarin and Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. weddelli) (with home ranges of ¢.30 ha), with which the group of Goeldi’'s Monkeys associated regularly. The home range of a group studied in an 820-ha forest at Fazenda Experimental Catuaba near Rio Branco in Acre State, Brazil, was 59 ha. Home-range overlap with other Goeldi’s Monkey groupsis small (e.g. only 3% in the 59-ha home range) and encounters between groups are rare compared with tamarins. Unlike tamarins, groups of Goeldi’s Monkeys spend no more time in the periphery of their range than elsewhere, and they do not appear to defend home ranges or food sources. Daily home ranges are 2-20 ha. Groups of Goeldi’s Monkey, studied to date, form mixed-species groups with Red-bellied Tamarin and Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. fuscicollis). One study in the Pando region found that they are near to or at least in vocal contact with mixedspecies groups of tamarins ¢.53% of the time; a second study in Acre, estimated 61% of the time. At the Pando site, the home range of 150 ha meant that Goeldi’s Monkeys associated with numerous tamarin groups; joining up and separating as they entered and left the tamarins’ home ranges. Goeldi’s Monkeys travel with tamarins more in the wet season (88%) when all species are eating more fruits and dietary overlap is highest. In the dry season, their association is reduced to ¢.37% of Goeldi’s Monkey time (as low as 13% in some months), and dietary overlap is much reduced; Goeldi’s Monkeys eat more fungi, whereas tamarins eat more nectar and gum. Goeldi’s Monkeys use more stream edge and bamboo clumps when looking for fungi in the dry season. In the wet season, they eat more fruits and tend to move slightly higher in the forest to do so. In association with tamarins, Goeldi’s Monkeys also tend to travel and forage slightly higher above the ground. Advantages to Goeldi’s Monkey of traveling in association could accrue from them using the knowledge of tamarins in finding fruiting trees and also in the safety in numbers when they are required to move up in the forest to reach the fruits. When Goeldi’s Monkeys arrive at a tall tree in fruit before the tamarins, they tend to wait in the understory until the tamarins arrive. Nevertheless, Goeldi’s Monkeys eat fruits of certain very tall trees only when they fall to the forest floor. Goeldi’s Monkeys, with small groups and large home ranges, occur at low densities of ¢.4-5 ind/km?, in contrast to densities of tamarins that can reach 50 ind/km?. Densities of Goeldi’s Monkeys have been found to be slightly higher and group sizes larger at a long-term study site near the city of Rio Branco: 0-8-1-2 groups/km? and groups of 7-12 individuals.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Goeldi’s Monkeys are vulnerable because of their low densities, very patchy distributions, and habitat loss. They are rare and elusive, their occurrence is patchy, and they use large home ranges. As a result of the low densities and secretive habits of Goeldi’s Monkeys, they can be missed during primate surveys, and their geographic distribution is poorly known. It is believed that this patchy distribution is related to sensitivity to seasonal resource availability, particularly distribution and abundance of fungi. Groups of Goeldi’s Monkey will abandon core areas of their range, either moving into a new area or simply disbanding. It is probable that they experience shortterm fluctuations in abundance and distribution of fungi and long-term changes associated with forest succession, particularly the bamboo clumps that provide their key resources. Goeldi’s Monkey has been recorded sporadically through a large area of the western Amazon, but it seems to be most common in the Pando Department of northern Bolivia. The Pando has a long history of human occupation, particularly connected with subsistence slash-and-burn agriculture, cultivation of hardwoods and fig trees, occupation by rubber-tappers (“seringueiros”) from the late 1800s, and collection of Brazil nuts (“castanheiros”) from the 1930s. In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a major primate export trade in the region, but the major threat today is logging, resulting in road construction, colonization, and cattle ranching—all causing widespread forest loss. Goeldi’s Monkeys occur in Serra do Divisor National Park and possibly the Rio Acre Ecological Station in Brazil. Presumably, the national natural parks of Amacayacu, Cahuinari, and La Paya in Colombia; and Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Azevedo &amp; Rehg (2003), Beck et al. (1982), Buchanan-Smith (1991¢), Buchanan-Smith et al. (2000), Calouro (1999), Carroll (1982), Carroll et al. (1990), Christen (1994, 1998, 1999), Christen &amp; Geissmann (1994), Dalton &amp; Buchanan-Smith (2005), Davis (1996, 2002), Defler (1994b, 2003b, 2004), Dettling (2002), Dettling &amp; Pryce (1999), Dutrillau, Lombard et al. (1988), Encarnacion &amp; Heymann (1998), Feistner &amp; Price (1991), Ferrari, Iwanaga, Messias et al. (1999), Garber &amp; Leigh (2001), Garber &amp; Rehg (1998), Garber, Blomquist &amp; Anzenberger (2005), Garber, Sallenave et al. (2009), Hanson, Hall et al. (2006), Hanson, Hodge &amp; Porter (2003), Heltne, Turner &amp; Wolhandler (1973), Heltne, Wojcik &amp; Pook (1981), Hernadndez-Camacho &amp; Barriga-Bonilla (1966), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1977), Hill (1959), Jurke (1996), Jurke, Pryce &amp; Dobeli (1995), Jurke, Pryce, Hug-Hodel &amp; Dobeli (1995), Lorenz (1971), Masataka (1982, 1983), Pastorini et al. (1998), Pook (1978), Pook &amp; Pook (1979, 1981, 1982), Porter (2001a, 2001b, 2001¢, 2004, 2006, 2007), Porter &amp; Christen (2002), Porter &amp; Garber (2004, 2007, 2010), Porter et al. (2007), Power et al. (2003), Pryce et al. (2002), Rehg (2006a, 2006b, 2007, 2009, 2010), Ross et al. (2010), Rylands et al. (2009), Schradin &amp; Anzenberger (2003), Schradin et al. (2003), Seuénez et al. (1989), Vasarhelyi (2002), Warneke (1992), Ziegler et al. (1989).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDCFFCFFF32F760687DE6A6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDFFFCEFAC7F82A6780E7EF.text	DF668780FFDFFFCEFAC7F82A6780E7EF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix aurita (E.Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1812)	<div><p>18.</p> <p>Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix aurita</p> <p>French: Ouistiti oreillard / German: Gelbohr-Blischelaffchen / Spanish: Titi de orejas blancas Other common names: Buffy-tufted Marmoset, \White-eared Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Jacchus auritus E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by J. Moojen in 1950 to Silveira Lobo, Minas Gerais State.</p> <p>A. Humboldt is often credited in various ways with the name of this species, but E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is the rightful authority. Humboldt in 1812 (dated 1811 but actually published a year later) credited Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for his 1812 publication in Tome 19 of Annales du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, where this species’ name first appeared. Humboldt’s nomenclatural act was a “name combination” in which he combined the name given by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire with the genus Simia. There is some geographic variation. Individuals from Sao Paulo State tend to be paler than those from Rio deJaneiro State. Callithrix aurita and C. flaviceps are closely related, and A. F. Coimbra-Filho believes it was better to consider the latter subspecific. Close similarities exist in their dental morphology, behavior, pelage (infants of the two forms are practically identical in appearance), and long calls. Hybrid C. aurita x C. flaviceps can be found in Carangola, Minas Gerais State. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Brazil in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo, in the N extending to the Rio Doce State Park in Minas Gerais; its distribution is largely montane at elevations of 600-1200 m.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—-body 19-25 cm, tail 27-35 cm; weight 400-450 g. The Buftytufted-ear Marmoset is dark brown or black above with buffy speckling. Its underside is ocher. Eear tufts are short (c.2-5 cm) and yellowish-brown, as are hands and feet. There is a white blaze across the forehead and a red patch on the crown.</p> <p>Habitat. Montane evergreen, semi-deciduous, secondary, scrubby forest, interspersed with stands of bamboo (Chusquea sp. and Merostachys sp.) at elevations up to 1200 m. The 35-ha home range of a group of Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosets studied in the Serra do Mar State Park, Sao Paulo, was composed of a mosaic of young, 12-m high, secondary growth (c.15 years old) with numerous bamboo stands, older 15-m high secondary growth (c.40 years old), and tall (20-25 m) forest, with and without bamboo stands. All recent occurrence records for the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset are in submontane and montane forest, although it evidently occurred in lowland forest near the Brazilian coast in the recent past. They forage and travel in the lower canopy and dense vegetation of the understory, 6-9 m above the ground.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Studies of the diet and feeding behavior of the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset have been conducted in a 17-ha forest patch on a farm in Monte Belo in the south of Minas Gerais and in the Bananal Ecological Station and Serra do Mar State Park (Nucleo Cunha) both in Sao Paulo. During a year at the Minas Gerais site, a group of four individuals ate fruits, seeds, and gums from 27 trees and vines in 16 families, the most important being Fabaceae (especially for gums) but also including Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Cactaceae. The group fed on gums of 18 species, and gum-feeding accounted for ¢.50% oftheir feeding time; however, 82% was dedicated to Acacia paniculata, a spiny, leguminous vine. Although Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosets would bite at the vine, this was evidently ineffective in stimulating the flow of gum, and like the Buffy-headed Marmoset (C. flaviceps), they would mostly trapline for small exudations resulting from wind and insect damage. Fruits comprised 11% of the feeding time, with a focus on small juicy berries and seeds with arils. Maclura tinctoria (Moracae) was particularly important in the diet, and the small seeds of this plant, and of Rhipsalis (Cactaceae), were found in their feces, indicating a role in dispersal. They also ate plant galls. Gums were eaten throughout the year, but less in the early wet season when fruits were more abundant. Fruit consumption dropped in the late wet season, and fruit was entirely absent in their diet through most of the dry season. Lepidopteran larvae, orthopterans (Tettigoniidae and Katydidae), cockroaches, spiders, snails, and lizards (Mabuya, Scincidae) comprised the animal part of their diet. Time spent foraging for animal prey was quite constant throughout the year. During the early and late dry seasons, Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosets licked up immature hemipterans and their sugary excretions from the stems of a species of Euphorbiaceae. In the dry season, they occasionally followed swarms of army ant (Labidus, Ecitoninae) to pick off prey disturbed in the leaflitter. At Serra do Mar State Park, the diet included gums, fruits, insects (particularly Acrididae and Tettigoniidae), opiliones (harvestmen), small frogs, lizards, and bird eggs and fledglings. During nine months, gums represented 54% of the time spent feeding on plant foods,fruits 31%, and fungi 15%. Fungi were eaten throughout the study but especially in March at the end of the wet season. Ten species were identified as gum sources, three of which were gouged: Prunus sellowii (Rosaceae), a common pioneer tree and the most important (78% of the gum-feeding records); a vine Paullinia carpopoda (Sapindacaeae); and two Qualea (Vochysiaceae) trees, visited very occasionally. The second most important species was Inga marginata (Fabaceae), the gum of which was exuded due to insect attack (wood-boring insects). Fruits were eaten from 21 plant species. All fruits were sweet and succulent, except for those from Rollinia sylvatica (Annonaceae). Among the most important fruits in the wet and dry seasons were Rhipsalis (Cactacaeae) and three species of Inga. Ficus enormis (Moraceae), Myrcia ct. fallax (Myrtaceae), Casearia decandra (Flacourticaeae), and Solanum cf. excelsum (Solanaceae) were also important in the wet season. The Buffy-tuftedear Marmoset does not appear to eat nectar. Fungal fruiting bodies (at least three species) from the culms and leafy branches of bamboos were eaten throughout the year. At the Fazenda Barreiro Rico, Sao Paulo, the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset gouged holes and fed on the gum of Astronium graveolens (Anacardiaceae).</p> <p>Breeding. Births of the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset have been recorded in the early wet season. The minimum interbirth interval is a little more than five months, indicating postpartum ovulation. A 16-month study of a group of 6-11 individuals in the Serra do Mar State Park recorded five births, four of them in the early wet season when food resources were abundant, especially insects. Three of the births were of singletons rather than twins, and infant survival was low. One of the group’s males copulated with two females, both of which gave birth, indicating polygynous breeding. The dominant female (judged by aggressive interactions) had a higher breeding success. All group members carried infants, but breeding females carried offspring exclusively for 10-28 days after the birth, unlike other marmosets where the mother passes infants to other group members even on the day of the birth. It is possible that this was to avoid infanticide by one of the other breeding females.</p> <p>Activity patterns. A group of seven individuals studied in the Serra do Mar State Park spent ¢.39% ofits time foraging for animal prey, 18% traveling, 16% eating (plant foods), ¢.6% resting, and 20% in other activities, largely social within the group or interacting with other groups. More time was spent foraging for animal prey (generally 27-30% of the time budget) than is typical of some other species of marmosets. There waslittle difference in these figures between the wet and dry seasons, although there was some variation between months. The group tended to be active for shorter periods in the hot-dry season (nine hours) than in the cool-wet season when they were active for up to 10-5 hours. In the wet season, individuals were active at ¢.06:30-19:00 h. In the dry season, they began the day later at ¢.07:30 h and retired earlier at ¢.16:30 h. When it was cold and raining, they tend to begin their day later. Sleeping sites were always associated with dense vegetation such as bromeliads, vine tangles, and bamboo at heights of c.11 m above the ground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group size of the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosetis typically 4-8 individuals, but it can be as large as eleven, including 1-2 adults of each sex. Home range sizes of groups were 11 ha and 16-5 ha in two forest fragments in the Fazenda Lagoa, Monte Belo (Minas Gerais), 35 ha at Serra do Mar State Park, and 40 ha at the Bananal Ecological Station. In the group studied in the Serra do Mar, 16% of 35-ha home range overlapped with two other groups, and individuals used c.4-2 ha on any one day, and 22-23 ha in each month. Daily movement averaged about 959 m (range 580-1400 m). They traveled and foraged mostly at ground level to 5 m above the ground, but feeding on fruits, resting, and social behaviors occurred typically at 4-9 m above the ground. The most common expression of social behavior is grooming, carried out largely when the group is resting. Grooming is mostly between adults, and adults are the most common groomers. The younger the individual, the more it is groomed and the less it grooms. Agonistic behaviors include pilo-erection, staring, hitting, and biting. Agonistic interactions are largely contests for food and protecting infants when other individuals try to take them or interact with them. The jararaca (Bothrops jararaca), a venomous pit viper, has been seen attacking and swallowing a Buffy-tufted-ear Marmoset. Densities of the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosets in an area of the Serra do Mar State Park (Nucleo Cunha) were 20-23 ind/km?. Further studies in the Serra do Mar State Park (nucleos Cunha /Indiaia and Santa Virginia) provided estimates of 7-5 ind/km?* (2-2 groups) and ¢.1386 individuals in 251 km? offorest (taking into account the extent of favorable habitats). In the Fazenda Barreiro Rico, it was rare, with one estimate indicating no more than 8-12 individuals in 2250 ha of forest, although a later survey estimated 15 ind/km?®. A density estimate in a 230-ha forest on another farm in Sao Paulo (Fazenda Sao José) was of 3-5 ind/ km?. Surveys in the Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais, provided estimates of relative abundance of 0-02-0-08 ind/km. These populations inhabit harshly seasonal forest in terms of temperature (dry season winter temperatures can be freezing) and rainfall, and they are undoubtedly restricted in their numbers by availability of key resources, particularly in the dry season when there is little or no fruit.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The extremely small distribution of the Buffy-tufted-ear Marmosetis considerably threatened by habitat destruction, dating back to the earliest days of European colonization in the 1500s. Introduced Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), otherwise native to north-eastern Brazil, have invaded many parts of its former distribution in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. It occurs in the following protected areas: Serra da Bocaina, Serra dos Orgaos, and Itatiaia national parks and Cantareira, Rio Doce, Serra do Brigadeiro (possibly hybrids with the Buffy-headed Marmoset) state parks. It also occurs in Bananal State Ecological Station and private reserves in Fazenda Monte Alegre, Minas Gerais, and Fazenda Barreiro Rico, Sao Paulo.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bernardo &amp; Galetti (2004), Brandao (1999), Brandao &amp; Develey (1998), Coimbra-Filho (1971, 1972, 1984, 1986b, 1990, 1991), Coimbra-Filho et al. (1993b), Corréa (1995), Corréa &amp; Coutinho (1997), Corréa et al. (2000), Cosenza (1993), Cosenza &amp; de Melo (1998), Coutinho (1996), Coutinho &amp; Corréa (1995), Ferrari &amp; Mendes (1991), Ferrari, Corréa &amp; Coutinho (1996), Hershkovitz (1977), Martins (1998a, 1998b, 2000), Martins &amp; Setz (2000), Mendes et al. (2009), Milton &amp; de Lucca (1984), Mittermeier et al. (1982), Moojen (1950), Muskin (1984a, 1984b), Natori (1986), Norris et al. (2011), Olmos &amp; Martuscelli (1995), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Santos &amp; Martins (2000), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Torres de Assumpcéao (1983).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDFFFCEFAC7F82A6780E7EF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDEFFC9FA0EF82D6602E7EB.text	DF668780FFDEFFC9FA0EF82D6602E7EB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix flaviceps (Thomas 1903)	<div><p>19.</p> <p>Bufty-headed Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix flaviceps</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a téte jaune / German: Gelbkopf-Blschelaffchen / Spanish: Titi de cabeza amarilla</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale flaviceps Thomas, 1903,</p> <p>Brazil, Engenheiro Rive, municipality of Alegre, SW Espirito Santo (c.20° S, 41° W).</p> <p>This species hybridizes with C. aurita in south-eastern Minas Gerais State and with C. geoffroyi in Espirito Santo State. C. flaviceps 1s considered by A. F. Coimbra-Filho to be a subspecies of C. aurita. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Brazil in the Serra da Mantiqueira in S Espirito Santo, S of the Rio Doce at least to the state boundary with Rio de Janeiro State, W into E Minas Gerais in the Rio Manhuacu Basin; in the N and W it extends almost to the right bank of the Rio Doce.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22-25 cm, tail 30-35 cm; weight c.400 g. The Buffyheaded Marmosetis yellowish gray-brown, with the bases ofits hairs black, speckled buffy upperparts, and a golden-orange underside. Ear tufts are short (c.2-5 cm), fanlike (coming from inside the ear), and yellowish-white. The forehead and crown are yellow-brown, and the muzzle is white. The tail is ringed.</p> <p>Habitat. Montane and submontane evergreen and semi-deciduous forest. Buffy-headed Marmosets have a preference for successional forest with dense vegetation and a dense understory, and even young secondary forest (“capoeira”). They are least abundant in tall forest with sparse understories. Forests they occupy are highly seasonal in rainfall and temperature. They have been recorded at elevations of 270-1800 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of the Buffy-headed Marmoset are composed principally of small animal prey (insects, especially Orthoptera, beetles, caterpillars, spiders, phasmids, small amphibians and reptiles, bats, and bird eggs), fruits, plant exudates (gums and nectar), and fruiting bodies (sporocarps) of fungi. In Caratinga Biological Station (Minas Gerais), fruits are eaten only seasonally and in small amounts. They made a significant contribution to the diet only in the wet season: 65% of the feeding records in January and 53% in February. Fruits/seeds were eaten almost entirely from species of Allophylus (Sapindaceae) in January and from species of Siparuna (Siparunaceae) in February. Species in both genera are small pioneering trees and were abundant in the marmosets’ home range. In November,fruits contributed 18% of the feeding records, but no more than 5% in other months. This was due to a general lack of fruits, not just those that they would find edible (e.g. small, sweet drupes or berries). Nectar of Mabea fistulifera (Euphorbiaceae) was eaten in May during the dry season. This concentration on very few species was also true for gums, which they exploited during the rest of the year. Two species of Fabaceae, Acacia paniculata (a vine) and Anadenanthera peregrina (a tree), were common in their home ranges and typical of secondary growth forest; they contributed more than 90% of the gum feeding records. Regarding use of Acacia paniculata, marmosets traplined droplets and accumulations of gum resulting from insect damage. In contrast, they gouged holes in the hard bark of the trunk and branches of Anadenanthera peregrina but also exploited its gum when there was spontaneous flow after heavy insect attack. Sporocarps of two types of ascomycete bamboo fungus (Mycocitrus sp.) were staples in the diet of a group of Buffy-headed Marmosets studied for twelve months in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (Espirito Santo); fungi accounted for 65% of the feeding records during the year (54-70% in any one month). Gum-feeding was accordingly reduced to only 6% ofthe diet and fruit 3-3%, with the remainder being animal prey (26%). In months when fruits were more available, the contribution of gum was correspondingly lower. Gums from more than 26 plant species were eaten by the group at Augusto Ruschi, but they gouged trunks and limbs of only two species of Guapira (Nyctaginaceae) and Sloanea (Elacocarpaceae). For all others species, gum was readily available from damage or tree-boring insects.</p> <p>Breeding. Female Buffy-headed Marmosets produce twins twice a year. A birth peak occurs in the wet season (November—January) and may also occur in the dry season (July-September), evidently depending on food availability that varies from year to year. Infants are carried by the mother on their first day, but this responsibility is relinquished to helpers on the second day. All group members carry offspring; even older siblings, as young as six months old, may try to help. Group members share food items with infants, which become independent at about three months old. As in other species of marmosets, reproduction is usually restricted to one female in each group; the breeding female inhibits reproduction in female subordinates in the group. Occasionally, however, a second female in the group may breed, and this may continue over several years—believed to be an arrangement between mother and a daughter. Births are separated by several months. In this situation, females carry their infants for at least the first week, possibly to avoid infanticide, particularly by the dominant breeding female. Reproductive success of subordinate females is lower; they have fewer and smallerlitters, and infant survival is poor. Four females in a group of 11-16 individuals studied at the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve gave birth over a ten-day period. Pregnancies were believed to have been caused by males from neighboring groups. Of the four births, twins of the dominant breeding female, a singleton born to another female, and one twin of each of the two remaining females survived to the end of the study; the other two infants were victims of infanticide. Observations in the wild showed that infants were carried exclusively by the mother on the first day but by other group members after that, and that females rarely carried their infants after the first week. In a group of eleven adults and subadults and two juveniles, infants were carried by ten individuals. Contributions to infant care were variable, however, with the two adult females and a subadult female contributing very little (less than 2% of the overall effort). Adult males carried infants more than any other group members, especially during the first week, and two of them carried the infants to the same extent as the mother. Carriers become increasingly intolerant as the infants grow and often reject them after the second month. Infant care also includes grooming and huddling with infants, food sharing, and sometimes food calling to attract infants.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Overall, a group of Buffy-headed Marmosets studied at Caratinga Biological Station was active for a relatively short period each day—about nine hours and 46 minutes per day throughout a 13-month study. The group was active longer in the wet season (ten hours and 21 minutes on average) than in the dry season (nine hours and 14 minutes). Individuals were rarely active until at least 20 minutes after it was fully light and retired to their sleeping tree no later than an hour before dusk. Their reduced activity in the dry season may have been related to cooler temperatures. They may have been saving energy or it may have been because of reduced activity of their prey. They spent about 27% of their time foraging for prey, 26% moving about, 25% resting, 11% feeding on plant foods, and 11% in other activities (social, especially grooming and play). There was some seasonal variation in activity; the group spent more time foraging for insects in the dry season (30%) than in the wet season (23%), traveling a little more in dry season (30% vs. 23% in the wet season), and resting less in the dry season (22% vs. 28% in the wet season). Individuals spent more time in social activities in the wet season (15% of their day vs. 8% in the dry season), perhaps because they could afford to do so with more abundant food and they had infants to care for and play with. The increase in time spent foraging in the dry season was accompanied by a lower rate of prey capture, associated with the loss of leaves in the semi-deciduous forest and reduced abundance of the many folivorous insects they eat. Animal prey of the Buffy-headed Marmoset includes particularly small vertebrates, notably more so than has been recorded for other species of marmosets. Lizards and frogs comprised as much as 49% of prey-feeding records in any one month.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Ecology and behavior of the Buftyheaded Marmoset was studied in the Caratinga Biological Station (1984-1986), an isolated forest of 880 ha, much of which is secondary growth in various stages of succession. Eight groups monitored there had an average size of 9-1 individuals (range 3-16). Group sizes are smaller in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve at 2-5 individuals (mean 3-4). The Buffy-headed Marmoset forms quite stable groups, with dispersal and formation of new groups by both males and females, sometimes migrating together in twos and threes to join others and form new groups. The home range of one group was 35-5 ha, 87-5% of which overlapped with other groups, but without any territorial interactions beyond the exchange of long calls. Monthly home ranges were 16-26 ha, and daily home ranges were 3-6 ha. Distance traveled each day averaged 1222-5 m (range 650-2670 m) and showed little change between wet and dry seasons. A group of 11-16 Buffy-headed Marmosets was studied for a year in the Augusto Ruschi reserve. Fungal sporocarps were the key food source, replacing gums. Fungi at Augusto Ruschi were restricted to widely dispersed bamboo clumps and were scarce (although more abundant in the wet season). A large home range and exploitation of fungi are also found in Goeldi’s Monkey (Callimico goeldii). In the early wet season at Caratinga (October-December), groups of Buffy-headed Marmoset are accompanied by kites (Ictinea plumbea and Leptodon cayanensis), capturing cicadas that are flushed into flight by the marmosets. They typically occur in quite low densities: 7 ind/km? (range 3-7-18 ind/km?) at Augusto Ruschi. A higher localized density of 40 ind/km? occurs at Caratinga (estimated total population of 200-300 individuals in 800 ha).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Buffy-headed Marmoset may, in fact, be the rarest of all species of marmosets, with an estimated population of less than 2500 mature individuals. Forests in its restricted distribution in the Rio Doce Valley are now extremely fragmented by agriculture, cattle ranching, Fucalyptus plantations, urbanization, and mining; more than 95% ofthe forest in original distribution of the Buffy-headed Marmoset has been destroyed. Most of the localities where it still exists are small, isolated forest patches with minimal populations. Surveys in 1990-1991 in the municipalities of Caratinga and Ipanema in the Manhuacu Valley found Buffy-headed Marmosets in only four of 16 forest patches (14-216 ha); hybrids of C. flaviceps x C. aurita were found in a fifth patch. They were found in only eleven of 37 forests fragments (c.2-4499 ha) in the six municipalities of the Manhuacu region in 2002-2003. Introduced (released confiscated) Common Marmosets (Callithrixjacchus), Black-tufted-ear Marmosets (C. penicillata), and Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets (C. geoffroyi) were found in eight of these forests fragments, and it is believed that they compete and hybridize with Buffy-headed Marmosets. The Buffy-headed Marmoset occurs in the following protected areas: Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Pedra Azul State Park, Forno Grande State Reserve, and Santa Lucia and Sao Lourenco biological stations in Espirito Santo State; Caparao National Park on the border of Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais; Serra do Brigadeiro State Park, Sagui da Serra Municipal Park, Mata do Sossego Private Reserve, and Caratinga Biological Station in Minas Gerais.</p> <p>Bibliography. Chiarello (2000, 2003), Coimbra-Filho (1971, 1972, 1984, 1986a, 1990), Coimbra-Filho et al. (1981, 1993), Corréa et al. (2002), Cosenza &amp; de Melo (1998), Diego et al. (1993), Ferrari (1987, 1988, 1990, 19913, 1991b, 1992, 2009a, 2009b), Ferrari &amp; Diego (1992, 1993), Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1990b), Ferrari &amp; Mendes (1991), Ferrari &amp; Strier (1992), Grelle &amp; Cerqueira (2006), Guimaraes (1998a, 1998b), Hanson et al. (2003), Hershkovitz (1977), Hilario &amp; Ferrari (2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2011), Hirsch (2003), Mendes, C.L.S. &amp; de Melo (2007), Mendes, S.L. (1993, 1997a, 1997b), Mendes, S.L. et al. (2009), Mittermeier, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Constable (1980), Mittermeier, Coimbra-Filho, Constable, Rylands &amp; Valle (1982), Natori (1986), Oliver &amp; Santos (1991), Pinto et al. (1993), Porter &amp; Garber (2010), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Strier et al. (1999), Tabacow et al. (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDEFFC9FA0EF82D6602E7EB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD9FFC8FADEF8286A0DEC36.text	DF668780FFD9FFC8FADEF8286A0DEC36.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix geoffroyi (Humboldt 1812)	<div><p>20.</p> <p>Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix geoffroyi</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Geoffroy / German: WeiRkopf-Blschelaffchen / Spanish: Titi de cabeza blanca Other common names: \White-faced Marmoset, White-headed Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia geoffroyi Humboldt, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by Prince A. P. M. Wied-Neuwied in 1826 to between the rios Espirito Santo and Jucu, near Victoria.</p> <p>This species hybridizes with C. penicillata and C. flaviceps where their respective distributions meet. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. E Brazil in Espirito Santo State and the forested E &amp; NE of Minas Gerais State, N as far as the rios Jequitinhonha and Aracuai and S to near the state border of Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. The populations in the N,just S of the Rio Jequitinhonha (= Belmonte), were introduced; Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets were released near Belmonte at the mouth of the river around 1975, and from there they spread E, and today occupy gallery forests throughout the region of dry thorn scrub (caatinga) of the middle reaches of the river as far W as the Rio Aracuai.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 18-23 cm, tail c.29 cm; weight 230-350 g (males) and c.190 g (females). Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset is reddish-gray and brown, with white on the forehead, cheeks, crown, and chest; the remainder of the head black. Ear tufts are also black and c.3-5 cm in length. The tail is densely ringed.</p> <p>Habitat. Secondary lowland, evergreen, and semi-deciduous forest up to elevations of 500 m. In Espirito Santo, Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset was studied in a disturbed (logged) forest, with a dense understory of vines. Studies in the forest reserve of Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, just north of the Rio Doce, found it most abundant in secondary and disturbed forest; it was never seen in tall mature forest with sparse undergrowth.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets eat gums, fruits, and small animals. During a year-long study of a group in a forest fragment within a eucalpytus plantation, the diet (time spent feeding) was 68% gums, 15% fruits, 15% invertebrate prey, and 1% vertebrate prey (frogs, Hyla, and lizards, Anolis). Gums were predominant in most monthly diets, but fruits represented 42-43% of the feeding records in the early wet season in December—January (due largely to a crop of an unidentified species of Myrtaceae). In other months, fruits comprised from 1% (May) to 20% (July) of the diet. Fruits of Acanthinophyllum ilicifolium (Moraceae) were important in July, and those from a species of Miconia (Melastomataceae) were important in August. Of twelve species providing gum, 78:3% of the feeding records were from Inga stipularis (28-5%), Acacia paniculata (22-3%) (both Fabaceae), Paullinia carpopodia (Sapindaceae) (19-2%), and Bauhinia angulosa (Fabaceae) (8:3%). Dictyoloma incanescens (Rutaceae) (6:8%) was also important. Exploitation of these species changed during the year. Gum from [. stipularis was important in February—June, P. carpopodia in July—October, and A. paniculata in September, reaching a peak in December. Invertebrates eaten were mainly orthopterans. They also ate Coleoptera, adult and immature hemipterans, spiders, and snails. To capture prey, Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets forage largely in the middle layers of the forest canopy along branches and in vegetation dense with vines. On occasion, they follow swarms of army ants (Eciton burchellii), picking off prey disturbed in the leaflitter.</p> <p>Breeding. Births of Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets have been recorded in September (dry season) and November (end of the dry season). Observations suggest birth peaks in the late dry to early wet season and six months later in the late wet season. Groups have not been seen with more than one breeding female.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Daily activity patterns of groups of Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmosets studied for twelve months revealed that they moved 20% oftheir time, rested for 29%, fed on fruits, gums, and animal prey for 21%, foraged for animal prey for 14%, and gouged bark and branches oftheir exudate trees for 13%; the remainder oftheir time involved social activities such as grooming, playing, and scent marking. Groups rested more in the wet season and spent more time foraging for prey in the dry season. They began their day at c.06:30 h, shortly after sunrise. During the day, time spent resting and moving was quite constant, although always with a peak in movement in the late afternoon when they traveled to their sleeping sites. Feeding on gums and fruits peaked at 07:00-10:00 h, while the amount of time foraging on animal prey increased gradually during the morning to peak at 12:00-14:00 h and then gradually declined until they retired to sleeping sites at 15:30-16:00 h. There was a small peak of fruit and gum feeding and especially tree gouging late in the afternoon. Of 28 sleeping sites recorded in one study, most were at the edge of the forest and in the dense and isolated crowns of trees 6-25 m above the ground, and they were often near a group’s principal gum sources. They used a tree hole as a sleeping site only once. During the day, they spent most of their time in the understory and lower canopy of the forest at 10 m or less above the ground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Geoffroy’s Tuftedear Marmoset are 2-15 individuals, with the larger groups having two or more adult males and adult females. A group studied in a forest patch in a eucalyptus plantation occupied a home range of 23 ha for twelve months but much smaller home ranges of 2:3-9-5 ha during each month. Monthly home ranges were larger in the dry season (average 7-2 ha) than in the wet season (average 4-9 ha). This was due to the clumped distribution of key fruiting trees in the wet season and dispersed gum sources used more in the dry season. Daily movements were 480-1980 m/day, averaging 982 m.in the wet season and 1037-5 m in the dry season. Potential predators of Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset include Margay (Leopardus wiedii), Oncilla (L. tigrinus), Tayra (Eira barbara), and raptors and,in the largest reserves where it occurs (Sooretama Biological Reserve and Linhares Forest Reserve), Jaguar (Panthera onca) and Puma (Puma concolor). A density estimate based on 16 sightings at Companhia Vale do Rio Doce indicated 10-5 groups/km?. A population survey in the Linhares Forest Reserve in the north of Espirito Santo indicated densities of 1-:8-2-1 groups/km? (with a mean group size of 8) or 14-4-16-8 ind/km?®. Surveys in six protected areas in north-eastern Espirito Santo, ranging from 210 ha (Puriti) to 24,250 ha (Sooretama Biological Reserve), resulted in density estimates of 3-8 ind/km? (the smallest reserve) to 37-8 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset are declining because of the widespread destruction of the Atlantic Forest in the states of Minas Gerais (less than 6-8% of the original area of Atlantic Forest remains) and Espirito Santo (c.13% of the original forest cover remains). It is patchily distributed but locally abundant. Geoffroy’s Tufted-ear Marmoset occurs in Serra do Cipo, Alto Cariri, and Pau Brasil national parks and Corrego Grande, Corrego do Veado, Sooretama, and Comboios biological reserves. It also occurs in Alto Cariri State Park, Duas Bocas State Reserve, Mata dos Muriquis State Wildlife Refuge, Rio dos Frades Wildlife Refuge, Linhares Forest Reserve, Porto Seguro Forest Reserve, Santa Lucia Biological Station, Pau Brasil Experimental Station, Gregorio Bondar Experimental Station, and Goitacazes Forest Reserve. Its occurrence in the Monte Pascoal National Park is uncertain, and the Common Marmoset (C. jacchus) might have been introduced there.</p> <p>Bibliography. Caine (1996, 1998, 2002), Caine et al. (2003), Chiarello (1995b, 1999, 2000), Coimbra-Filho (1971, 1972, 1984, 1986¢, 1990), Coimbra-Filho, Mittermeier &amp; Constable (1981), Coimbra-Filho, Pissinatti &amp; Rylands (1993b), da Fonseca, Hankerson &amp; Caine (2004), Hershkovitz (1977), Mendes (1991, 1993, 1997a, 1997b), Mendes et al. (2009), Oliveira et al. (2003), Oliver &amp; Santos (1991), Passamani (1995, 1996b, 1998), Passamani &amp; Rylands (2000a, 2000b), Passamani, Aguiar et al. (1997), Passamani, Mendes et al. (1997), Price (1993), Price et al. (2002), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Spironelo et al. (1988), Searcy &amp; Caine (2003), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), de Vivo (1991).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD9FFC8FADEF8286A0DEC36	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFD8FFCBFF32F35A6DF9E433.text	DF668780FFD8FFCBFF32F35A6DF9E433.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix kuhlii Coimbra-Filho 1985	<div><p>21.</p> <p>Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix kuhlii</p> <p>French: Ouistiti de Kuhl / German: Kuhl-Blschelaffchen / Spanish: Titi de orejas negras</p> <p>Other common names: Wied's Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Callithrix kuhlii Coimbra-Filho, 1985,</p> <p>Brazil, Rio Belmonte (= Rio Jequitinhonha), southern Bahia.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. E Brazil between the Rio de Contas and Rio Jequitinhonha in S Bahia State, just entering the NE tip of Minas Gerais State.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-23 cm, tail 29-33 cm; weight 350-400 g. Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset has black pre-auricular tufts and a white patch in the middle of the forehead. Its cheeks and throat are pale grayish-beige to pale brown. Its back is striped, outer thighs are reddish brown, and the tail is ringed. There is a reddish-brown coloration to the base of the hairs on some parts of the body, especially on the outside of the thighs. Hands, arms, feet, and legs are very dark, almost black. The crown is black in juveniles but pale grayish-beige in adults. The pencil-like ear tufts are black, long, and less dense than those of the Black-tufted-ear Marmoset (C. penicillata). Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset differs from the Common Marmoset (C. jacchus) in being darker overall, with the conspicuous reddish-brown showing through the blackish (variously white-flecked) pelage ofits thighs and flanks.</p> <p>Habitat. Coastal evergreen and (inland) mesophytic forest of the Atlantic Forest in southern Bahia, Brazil. Cacao is cultivated in the easterly, more coastal part of the distribution of Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset. It can occupy secondary forests and cacao plantations where many of the taller trees of the forest are left standing to provide shade—an agroforestry system known as “cabruca.” It also occupies old, abandoned rubber plantations, dense in secondary growth. Near the coast, it occupies arboreal “restinga” (sandy soil forest), characterized by the abundant, endemic piacava palm (Attaleafunifera). In the humid coastal forest, there is no distinct seasonality, with more than 100-200 mm of rainfall every month.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset eats fruits, flowers, nectar, gums, and small animal prey, including insects, spiders, snails, lizards, and frogs. During three months (August—-October) at Una, Bahia, fruit comprised 63-69-5% of the plant part of the diet, exudates 30-5-34%, and flowers 3%, eaten only in August. Feeding on animal prey contributed 12-15% of the diet in the three months. In June-November, Wied'’s Black-tufted-ear Marmoset ate from 17 plants in eleven families, and six species of pioneer Melastomataceae —common and clumped in secondary growth and edge habitats and providing abundant small, sweet fruits—were the most important: Henriettea succosa in June-July, Miconia dodecandra and M. hypoloeuca and a third unidentified species in August—-October, and another unidentified Miconia in November. Fruits of an unidentified species of Myrtaceae and Pourouma velutina (Urticaceae) were also important in October-November. The red flowers and nectar of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) were significant parts of the diet in July-August. Gums were eaten from ten plant species, including species of Inga (Fabaceae) and Anacardium (Anacardiaceae). Their principal source of gum was the giant emergent Parkia pendula (Fabaceae); they gouged its trunks and branches and also ate the abundant gum exuded from large hanging seed pods. Gum of P. pendula ranked second in the plant part of the diet in August—October, making up 23-28% of the feeding records each month. Foraging for animal prey by Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets involves largely foliagegleaning, stealth, stalk and pounce, and searching on leaves and along branches in dense vegetation and vine tangles—typical of other species of Callithrix. Occasionally, they rummage through debris and accumulations ofleaflitter, but they do not forage in epiphytic tank bromeliads as do sympatric Golden-headed Lion Tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas). Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets accompany army ants (Labidus praedator and sometimes Eciton rapax), moving in front of the swarms and going to the ground to capture fleeing insects and spiders from the leaflitter. Snails are eaten by first biting the apex of the shell. They will also eat plant galls from undersides of the leaves of Platycentrum clidemioides (Melastomataceae), biting off the galls and extracting the larvae with their hands and mouth. Principal larger prey include orthopterans (Tettigoniidae and Acrididae), coleopteran adults and larvae, stick insects (Phasmidae), spiders, and frogs.</p> <p>Breeding. At the Una Biological Reserve in Bahia State, infants (births) were recorded in November—February. Usually only one female in each group breeds, but rarely two breed. Demographic and reproductive data for a captive population showed that gestation is c.143 days, ovulatory cycles are c.25 days, ovulation occurs 13-14 days after parturition, intervals between six births averaged 156 days, the average age of first reproduction was 2-7 years for males and 3-3 years for females, and youngest age to sire or conceive infants was one year for males and 1-4 years for females.</p> <p>Activity patterns. In a three-month study near the town of Una, a group of Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets spent 38% of their time moving, 25% foraging for animal prey, 20% feeding on plant foods, 3% feeding on animal prey, and 14% resting and engaging in social activities. The group spent 78% ofits time below 15 m above ground and 53% of its time at heights of 8-15 m. Individuals foraged mostly in the dense vegetation of the middle strata and lower canopy of the forest, 11-16 m above the ground. Occasionally, they went to the ground to search for prey. Wied’s Black-tuftedear Marmosets are active for 10-11 hours/day; their activities begin 30-45 minutes after sunrise and end 1-1-5 hours before sunset. Fruit eating peaks in early morning and mid-afternoon. Resting bouts by the whole group occur throughout the day but tended to be more frequent and prolonged in the middle of the day. Time spent foraging for animal prey increases during the day but gradually decreases through mid- to late afternoon. Fourteen sleeping sites recorded in the study included dense liana tangles in low bushy vegetation (8-9 m above the ground), tall tree crowns (15-25 m above the ground), and low trees with dense crowns (10-15 m above the ground).</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Eight groups of Wied’s Black-tuftedear Marmosets near the town of Una contained 5-9 individuals (mean 6-6); all groups had two or more adults, four of them with two adult males. Another eight groups monitored over four years in the Una Biological Reserve had 2-6 individuals (mean 4-2); six of them with two adult males. Larger groups were seen elsewhere with up to 16 individuals. Adult males and adult females will leave their natal groups to disperse to other groups. A case was recorded where two adult males split off from a group and, after two months, joined two other individuals to form a new group; one them was an adult female that gave birth to twins five months later. At Una, their densities were 8:7-9-7 groups/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets occur in Serra das Lontras National Park, Una Biological Reserve, Canavieiras Extractive Reserve, and Itacaré-Serra Grande Environmental Protection Area. Boa Nova National Park and Boa Nova Wildlife Refuge are in the far west of its distribution.</p> <p>Bibliography. Coimbra-Filho (1985b), Coimbra-Filho et al. (2006), Fite et al. (2003), French, Brewer et al. (1996), French, Schaffner et al. (1995), Mittermeier, Rylands &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1988), Natori (1990), Oliver &amp; Santos (1991), Puffer et al. (2004), Raboy et al. (2008), Ross et al. (2007), Rylands (1982, 1984, 1989a, 1996), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Spironelo et al. (1988), Santos et al. (1987), Schaffner &amp; French (1997, 2004), Schaffner et al. (1995), Smith et al. (1997), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFD8FFCBFF32F35A6DF9E433	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDBFFCBFFD9FB6C6757EA61.text	DF668780FFDBFFCBFFD9FB6C6757EA61.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix penicillata (E.Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1812)	<div><p>22.</p> <p>Black-tufted-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix penicillata</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a pinceaux noirs / German: Schwarzbuschelaffchen / Spanish: Titi de pincel negro Other common names: Black-penciled Marmoset, Black-tufted Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Jacchus penicillatus E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Lamarao, near Salvador, Bahia.</p> <p>A. Humboldt is often credited in various ways with the name of this species, but E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is the rightful authority. Humboldt in 1812 (dated 1811 but actually published a year later) credited Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for his 1812 publication in Tome 19 of Annales du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, where this species’ name first appeared. Humboldt’s nomenclatural act was a “name combination” in which he combined the name given by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire with the genus Simia. This species hybridizes with C. geoffroyi in Minas Gerais State and C. jacchus in Bahia State. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SC Brazil in the states of Maranhao, Tocantins (E of the Rio Araguaia), SW tip of Piaui, Bahia (S of the rios Grande and Sao Francisco), Goias, Minas Gerais, N of Sao Paulo (N of the rios Tieté and Piracicaba), and NE Mato Grosso do Sul (E of the Serra de Maracaju to the level of the rios Pardo or Taquaracu, and right bank tributaries of the Rio Parana). Along with the Common Marmoset (C. jacchus), it has been introduced to the more humid Atlantic Forest on the coast of the states of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Santa Catarina.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-23 cm, tail 29-33 cm; weight ¢.225 g (males) and c.180 g (females). The Black-tufted-ear Marmoset is named forits distinctive black ear tufts that spring from just in front of the ears and tend to sag down into long “pencils” (each c.4-5 cm). Fur is generally speckled-gray above with yellowish-brown limbs and a ringed tail. The head is also yellowish-brown, with a black face and a triangular patch of white fur on the forehead.</p> <p>Habitat. Wide ranging in semi-deciduous forest patches, liana forest, scleromorphic savanna (cerrado), open-canopy woodland (“cerradao”), buriti (Mauritia flexuosa, Arecaceae) palm woodlands (“veredas”), gallery forests in the central savanna (Cerrado region) of Brazil, and dry forests (arboreal caatinga) and gallery forests in the Caatinga region (semi-desert xeromorphic scrub and woodland) of north-eastern Brazil, Goias, and northern, central, and eastern Minas Gerais. The Black-tufted-ear Marmoset can also be found in the mesophytic Atlantic Forest in parts of eastern and southern Minas Gerais and northern Sao Paulo; probably a relatively recent invasion due to the widespread destruction and degradation of the forest and its replacement forming mosaics of forest fragments, cerrado, and scrub.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Gums are a major component of the diet of the Black-tufted-ear Marmoset. Important plants that provide these exudates include numerous species common in gallery forests and cerradao: Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae), Didymopanax macrocarpus (Araliaceae), Terminalia brasiliensis (Combretaceae), Enterolobium gummferum (Fabaceae), Plathymenia reticulata (Mimosaceae), Magonia pubescens (Sapindaceae), and a number of species of the family Vochysiaceae, including Callisthene major, Qualea dichotoma, Q. parviflora, Q. grandiflora, Vochysia pyramidalis, V. tucanorum, V. rufa, and V. thyrsoidea. They also eat red latex of Hancornia speciosa (Apocynaceae). A study of three groups of Black-tufted-ear Marmosets in cerradao in the Botanical Gardens of Brasilia identified 22 plant species with gouge holes on their trunks and branches. Another study in gallery forest identified 14 plant species attacked by marmosets to obtain gums. In general, a group concentrates on 1-3 species that comprise the majority of feeding records; other species are attacked occasionally. These groups in the botanical gardens ate fruits of another 14 trees, including a number of species of Miconia, especially M. ferruginata and M. albicans (Melastomataceae), Brosimum gaudichaudii (Moraceae), Duguetia furfuracea (Annonaceae), and Simarouba versicolor (Simaroubaceae). A study in a gallery forest, also near to Brasilia, found them gouging and eating gums from some of the species already mentioned (principally Tapirira guianensis), as well as Piptocarpha macropoda (Asteraceae) and Sclerolobium paniculatum (Fabaceae). Fruits eaten included mainly Salacia elliptica (Celastraceae), Emmotum nitens (Icacinaceae), Terminalia (Combretaceae), Nectanda lanceolata (Lauraceae), Licania (Chrysobalanaceae), Protium (Burseraceae), and Myrcia (Myrtaceae).</p> <p>Breeding. Births of the Black-tufted-ear Marmoset occurred in August-September (end of the dry season) and February—January (near the end of the wet season) in the cerrado and gallery forests near Brasilia. Of seven births recorded in a group studied for more than 40 months in a patch of cerrado forest in the suburbs of Campo Grande, Mato Gross do Sul, three occurred in the early wet season (October-November), two in the mid- to late wet season (December and February), one in the first month of the dry season (April), and one in the middle of the dry season (July). Fruit was more abundant in the wet season. Births were twice yearly, and interbirth intervals in four cases were 5-9 months. One female bred twice in the early part of the study and then left the group. A second female took over as breeding female, but she was already two-months pregnant when the first female left. A male that entered the group three months prior to the emigration of the first breeding female was believed to be the father. Nine emigrations were recorded during 40-month study; in three cases where age could be determined, all individuals were nine months old.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Gums are eaten particularly in the early morning and late afternoon.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Black-tufted-ear Marmoset generally forms groups of 5-6 individuals, but they can be as small as two individiuals and as large as 13 individuals, often with 2-3 adults. Home range sizes recorded for groups in cerradao were 2-5-18-5 ha, and a group studied in a gallery forest occupied a home range of 3-5 ha. Core areas of these home ranges tended to be determined by the group’s principal gum sources, especially Tapirira guianensis. A group studied in an urban patch of cerrado forest in Mato Grosso do Sul State occupied 6 ha and had 5-12 individuals over 40 months, with 2-5 adult males and 1-3 adult females at any one time. During the study, the group evidently split with the breeding female emigrating with two five-month-old juveniles and her 16-month-old daughter. Another adult female took over as breeding female. Remains of Black-tufted-ear Marmosets have been found in a nest of the ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus). White-tailed kites (Elanus leucurus), crested caracaras (Polyborus plancus), snakes, and small cats elicit anti-predator behavior. Densities of Black-tufted-ear Marmosets can be quite high: e.g. 38-7-50 ind/ km? in secondary and gallery forests near Brasilia and 40-57 ind/km?in cerradao. In the dry forest of the Botanical Gardens of Brasilia, densities exceed 80 ind/km?. In some cases, densities are low; in the gallery forest of the Corrego da Onca, also near Brasilia, groups average only 2-5 ind/group, with a density of 3-2 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Black-tufted-ear Marmosetis widespread and hardy, and it is able to survive in extremely degraded habitats. Nevertheless, populations have disappeared or are declining in many parts of its distribution. It has been introduced into part of the Rio Doce and Ibitipoca state parks in Minas Gerais and Ilha Grande State Park in Rio de Janeiro. Protected areas within its geographical distribution include the national parks of Emas, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Serra da Canastra, Serra do Cipo, Araguaia, Grande Sertao Veredas, Chapada da Diamantina, Chapada dos Veadeiros, and Cavernas do Peruacu, and Mata Escura Biological Reserve, Pirapitinga Ecological Station, Raso da Catarina (possibly introduced or mixed populations with the Common Marmosets), Jatal State Ecological Station, Veredas do Oeste Baiano Wildife Refuge, and Acaua State Reserve.</p> <p>Bibliography. Andrade-Greco &amp; Andrade (1999), Barros, Alencar &amp; Tomaz (2004), Barros, Boere et al. (2002), Coimbra-Filho (1971, 1972, 1984, 1990), de Faria (1984a, 1984b, 1986), da Fonseca &amp; Lacher (1984), Henriques &amp; Cavalcante (2004), Hershkovitz (1977), Lacher et al. (1981, 1984), de Miranda &amp; de Faria (2001), Nogueira et al. (2010), Odéalia-Rimoli &amp; Rimoli (2007), Olmos &amp; Martuscelli (1995), Passamani (1996a), Passamani, Aguiar et al. (1997), Rizzini &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1981), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Spironelo et al. (1988), Seabra et al. (1991), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Vilela &amp; de Faria (2002, 2004).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDBFFCBFFD9FB6C6757EA61	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFDBFFD5FAD7F5B269B9E414.text	DF668780FFDBFFD5FAD7F5B269B9E414.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Callithrix jacchus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>23.</p> <p>Common Marmoset</p> <p>Callithrix jacchus</p> <p>French: Ouistiti a toupets blancs / German: Weiliblischelaffchen / Spanish: Titi comun Other common names: \White-tufted-ear Marmoset</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia jacchus Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>America. Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to Brazil, Pernambuco.</p> <p>This species hybridizes with C. penicillata in some areas (e.g. northern Bahia State). Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE Brazil (states of Maranhao, Piaui, Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraiba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, N Bahia &amp; possibly NE Tocantins), originally extending S as far as the Rio Sao Francisco and its W bank tributary the Rio Grande (c.11° 30” S), in the NW in Maranhao and Piaui extending to the left bank of the Rio Parnaiba, probably as far as the interfluvium of the rios Itapecurt and Mearim. Introduced in numerous other regions S of the Rio Sao Francisco, Sergipe State, the N &amp; NE of Bahia, and the more humid Atlantic Forest on the coast of the states of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Santa Catarina in SE Brazil.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 16-21 cm (males) and 17-20 cm (females), tail 25— 31 cm (males) and 24-30 cm (females); weight mean 317-9 g (males, n = 69) and 322 g (females, n = 86). The Common Marmoset is marbled black, gray, and yellow above, with transverse stripes on the lower back and a heavily ringed tail. Underparts are gray. The head is dark brown and dominated by white ear tufts in the form of a fan (c.3 cm in length), above and in front of the ears. There is a prominent patch of white fur on the forehead, and the crown is black. Individuals tend to be paler in drier regions and more chestnut-colored in mesic regions.</p> <p>Habitat. Coastal Atlantic Forest, liana forest, semi-deciduous forest, scleromorphic cerrado woodland or cerrado savanna forest (“cerradao”), buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) palm woodlands (“veredas”), and gallery forest in the northern parts of the central savanna (Cerrado region), and “brejo” forest (inland moist forests on the slopes of plateaus), deciduous, dry scrub forests (arboreal caatinga and “agreste” nearer the Atlantic coast), and gallery forests in the Caatinga region (semi-desert xeromorphic scrub and woodland) of north-east Brazil, and babassu palm (Orbygnia) forest along the south-eastern border of Amazonia in the states of Maranhao and Goias. The Common Marmoset can also be found in coastal scrub (“restinga”) and mangroves. Their ability to gouge tree trunks and branches to stimulate the flow of gums and latex allows them to occupy even strongly seasonal habitats that have prolonged fruit shortages. When fruit and exudate trees are abundant, the Common Marmoset can reach very high densities, especially in secondary forest, scrubland, abandoned orchards, and fruit plantations. Densities are low and group sizes are small in the most extremely seasonal habitats such as forests in the Caatinga region. Introduced populations of the Common Marmoset live in a variety of habitats, including plantations, suburban gardens, and even city parks in Rio de Janeiro. There are two major studysites of longterm field research on the Common Marmoset: since 1976, the Tapacura Ecological Station (776 ha, 110-208 m above sea level) with disturbed, secondary, semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, 52 km from Recife, Pernamubuco, and since 1991, the experimental forestry station (180 ha) at Nisia Floresta, 45 km from Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, which has 80 ha of disturbed Atlantic Forest, reaching 20 m in height, and experimental plantations such as coconut, olives, mangos, cashew, eucalyptus, and pine.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. At the Tapacura site, the marmosets depend heavily on tree and vine exudates: calumbi (a vine) Acacia paniculata, and angico Anadenanthra colubrina (both Fabaceae), and brito Astronium fraxinifolium and cashew Anacardium occidentale (both Anacardiaceae). The marmosets gouge holes in the bark of the trees to stimulate the flow of gum, but collect already-oozing gum (caused by damage and insect attack) from the Acacia. A. paniculata and the three tree species are found at very high densities. The 2-5-ha home range of one group contained 131 individuals of the three trees and 188 calumbi vines. The abundance and distribution of these food sources evidently vary and are important determinants of home range size and quality. In drier areas inland in southern Piaui, Common Marmosets occupy areas where gum trees are scarcer and climates are more seasonally extreme. In Sete Cidades National Park, densities of trees providing gums were as low as two per hectare, and Common Marmosets were correspondingly scarcer. The staple diet of groups of Common Marmoset in small patches of secondary forest in Joao Pessoa on the Brazilian coast was gum from Tapirira guianensis and Thyrsodium schomburgkianum (both Anacardiaceae). All trees in the home ranges (4-5 ha) of the groups showed signs of gouging, but 1-2 trees were their principal sources of gum. Fruits eaten by Common Marmosets include Cecropia infructescences (Urticaceae), cashew, and caja (Spondias sp.) (Anacardiaceae), Inga edulis (Fabaceae) and jakfruit Artocarpus integrifolius (Moraceae), palm fruits Syagrus picrophylla (Arecaceae), and Cordia (Boraginaceae). They also, very occasionally, gouge bark and eat gum of tambor (Enterolobium contortisiliquum, Fabaceae) and Spondias (Anacardiaceae), but they are not important sources of food. In contrast with Tapacura, there are numerous cultivated fruit trees at Nisia Floresta that make up a large portion of the diets of Common Marmosets. One group offive individuals, studied for ten months and occupying a home range of only 2-2 ha, used two mango trees (Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae), four cashew trees, and 21 copiuba trees (Tapirira guianensis) for both gum and fruit; two seriguela trees (Spondias purpurea) and one caja-manga tree (S. dulcis); 101 olive trees (Syzygium jambolanum, Myrtaceae); a guava tree (Psidium guajava, Myrtaceae); two araca trees (Psidium oligospermum); one pitanga tree (Eugenia uniflora, Myrtaceae); and three graviola trees (Annona muricata, Annonaceae). Two other species provided gums: two Enterolobium contortisiliquum and seven Terminalia catappa (Combretacaeae) trees. Some of these trees fruit for a short while in the second half of the dry season (e.g. cashew and manga), but when fruits are scarce, Common Marmosets eat more gum. In the early dry season, gums can make up almost 80% of the feeding records each month. During the late dry season (December-February) and most of the wet season (March—May), fruits comprise 60%—-100% of the feeding records each month. Insect prey of the Common Marmoset include large grasshoppers, katydids (Tettigoniidae), crickets (Gryllidae), cicadas (Hemiptera), stick insects (Phasmidae), cockroaches (Blattaria), ants (Formicidae), and beatles (Buprestidae). Spiders, small lizards, eggs of a gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia), tree frogs, bird eggs and nestlings, and even an infant rodent have been recorded in their diets. Kiskadees (Pitangus), caciques (Cacicus), and tropical gnatcatchers (Polioptila plumbea) have been observed mobbing Common Marmosets, indicating that they are predators of eggs and nestlings.</p> <p>Breeding. At Tapacura, Common Marmosets give birth in most months of the year (never recorded in March or August), with two birth peaks; one in October—-December (the dry season) and another in April-July (the wet season). Interbirth intervals are b—7 months. Females in larger groups have better infant survival and shorter interbirth intervals than those in smaller groups, likely because of the larger number of helpers in the group that carry infants and share food with them, reducing the burden on the breeding female. Births during a 13-month study of a group at Joao Pessoa, Paraiba State, occurred in November (middle of the dry season; September—February) and April (early wet season; March—August). Three groups of 5-15 individuals studied at Nisia Floresta also bred twice a year. Although the general rule for marmosets and tamarins is a single breeding female per social group, all three of these groups had two breeding females, believed to be mother-daughter pairs. More than one breeding female in a group is thought to be a consequence of high densities, which limit dispersal and breeding opportunities for daughters elsewhere in the area. In captivity, introduction of an unrelated male to a group can result in daughters that are not behaviorally subordinate becoming reproductively active. Only one male in each group, not related to the females, copulated with breeding females following birth, which indicates polygyny. Genetic analyses of the group members indicate that, in some cases, infants may be sired by extragroup males. When food is scarce, infant mortality can be high and especially when more than one female is breeding. This situation is accompanied by what appears to be a contest for dominance among breeding females and presumably for help from the group members in carrying infants and provisioning them with food items. Infanticide has been observed in these unstable groups. The daughter of a breeding female in one group studied in captivity assumed a dominant position when her mother was pregnant. The daughter killed her mother’s infants when they were born and those of a subsequent pregnancy. A case of polygyny in captivity, with two females giving birth within 15 days of each other, was accompanied by the mothers carrying their respective infants almost exclusively for the first two weeks. This suggested that the two females, aggressive to each other, did so to avoid infanticide. Infants are carried nearly all the time until they are about four weeks old; from then on, they are carried progressively less, with infants leaving the backs of their carriers to explore. At ten weeks old, infants are carried for ¢.20% of the time, and carrying ends at about twelve weeks. Most or all of the juvenile, subadult, and adult members of a group of Common Marmosets carry infants, but adults carry them more often and for longer periods than younger group members and are also the most active in retrieving distressed infants. Adult males engage in these behaviors more than females, and juveniles carry infants very little and for short periods. In captivity at least, reproductive success of females increases in groups with larger numbers of adult male helpers; fathers also benefit in larger groups because they carry less. When helpers are present, undue termination of nursing and unsuccessful nursing attempts by infants are less frequent, and mothers nurse the infants for longer. This indicates that helpers not only contribute directly by carrying young (reducing the burden on the female) but also promote healthier infants by beneficially influencing successful nursing by the mother. Infants are weaned at 8-10 weeks of age. Solid food is first eaten around week four, and infants are able to eat by themselves at 5-6 weeks. By weeks 12-16, infants are physically quite independent, nursing has ceased, and they eat solid food unaided. Juveniles at 4-7 months are ¢.75% of the adult weight; they play, groom, and solicit grooming and attempt to carry infants. Subadults (9-14 months) are ¢.82% of adult weight and scent-mark, show agonistic behaviors such as pilo-erection, tuft flicking, and arch walking, and help more with infant carrying if there are newborns in the group. Females reach sexual maturity at c¢.65 weeks, and males show an increase in testis size at ¢.52 weeks. Gestation is c¢.145 days and the ovulatory cycle is 28 days (range 24-30 days).</p> <p>Activity patterns. A group of Common Marmosets atJoao Pessoa generally began their day c.30 minutes after sunrise at 05:15-06:10 h. They first fed on fruit or gum, followed by foraging for insects and other animal prey. As the day progressed, they rested, groomed, and played more until ¢.13:00 h, after which they resumed foraging before retiring to their sleeping sites at 16:00-17:00 h. Sleeping sites were generally in vine tangles and along branches near a tree trunk in the isolated canopiesof tall trees, near the edge of the forest and their current food sources. The daily activity budget was: foraging 24% of the day, resting 18%, eating gum 15%, grooming 15%, moving 11%, eating fruits 7%, eating insects 5%, and interacting with other groups 5%. At Tapacura,sleepingsites also tend to be near forest edge in branches in dense lianas (Acacia paniculata; Serjania, Sapindaceae, and Gouania, Rhamnaceae), with epiphytes in trees at heights of 4-19 m, but usually ¢.8 m above the ground. These groups begin their day at 05:00-06:05 h and retire to their sleeping sites at 16:30-17:40 h.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Common Marmosets contain 3-13 individuals, with up to four adult females and four adult males, but generally 2-3 of each sex. Home ranges of five groups in Tapacura ranged from 2-9 ha to 6-6 ha, each overlapping 12-28%. At Nisia Floresta, two groups monitored for twelve months and a third monitored for 18 months used home ranges of 5-2 ha, 4-6 ha, and 3-9 ha. Daily movements were correspondingly small. At Tapacura, three groups traveled 528-978 m/day. At Joao Pessoa, a group studied for 13 months used an area of 5 ha. These small home ranges are undoubtedly related to the concentration and availability of gums and fruits. Trees providing fruits at Nisia Floresta are cultivated. Abundance of these fruits in the wet season and late dry season, and trees providing gum at times when fruits are scarce, allow for small home ranges, large groups, and high densities. The three groups at Nisia Floresta had 5-12 individuals, each with two reproductively active females. These grew in size, with an infant survival of 52% and despite the disappearance or emigration of six individuals and no immigration. Individuals disperse from their natal group beginning at c.17 months of age. Females disperse more often than males, and dispersal occurs more frequently during the rainy season when fruits and insects are more abundant. In five groups monitored for 36 months at Tapacura, 15 females and seven males dispersed. In ten groups monitored for ten years at the Nisia Floresta, the rate of dispersal was 0-42-3-4 ind/year, and 63-4% of the dispersing individuals were females. Reproductive competition is thought to cause dispersal. At Tapacura, densities reach 496 ind/km?, but in harsher, very seasonal habitats in the Caatinga region, for example, groups are smaller and their densities considerably lower. Predators of the Common Marmoset include the roadside hawk (Buteo magnirostris), the collared forest-falcon (Micrastur semitorquatus), and the Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundz).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Common Marmoset was once extensively exploited for the exotic pet trade and biomedical research. Although widespread and common in many localities, and even replacing other species of Callithrix where it has been introduced, populations of Common Marmosets are depleted through habitat destruction in extensive parts of their original geographic distribution. The following protected area are within their geographical range: Sete Cidades National Park, Serra da Capivara National Park, Ubajara National Park, Serra Negra Biological Reserve, Saltinho Biological Reserve, Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, Guariba Biological Reserve, Mamanguape Ecological Station, Serido Ecological Station, Itabaiana Ecological Station (possible hybrids with Black-tufted-ear Marmoset, C. penicillata), Urucui-Una Ecological Station, Aiuaba Ecological Station, Foz do Sao Francisco Ecological Station, Raso da Catarina Ecological Reserve (possible hybrids with the Black-tufted-ear Marmoset), Ponta do Cabo Branco State Park, Guaramiranga State Park, Dunas Costeiras State Park, Buraquinho State Biological Reserve, and Tapacura State Ecological Station. Tijuca National Park, in Rio de Janeiro State, contains an introduced population.</p> <p>Bibliography. Abbott (1978, 1984a), Abbott &amp; Hearn (1978), Abbott et al. (1993), Albuquerque &amp; Arruda (1997), Alonso (1986), Alonso &amp; Langguth (1989), Alonso et al. (1987), Anzenberger (1985), Araujo et al. (2000), Arruda et al. (1986a, 1986b), Barrett et al. (1990, 1993), Box (1975a, 1975b, 1977a, 1977b), Coimbra-Filho (1971, 1972, 1984, 1990), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Camara (1996), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1976, 1977a), Coimbra-Filho et al. (1980), Digby (1995, 1999), Digby &amp; Barreto (1993, 1996, 1998), Digby &amp; Ferrari (1994), Digby &amp; Saltzman (2009), Digby et al. (1996), Epple (1970), Erkert (1989), Evans &amp; Hodges (1984), Evans &amp; Poole (1983, 1984), Faulkes et al. (2003), Garber et al. (2009), Harding et al. (1982), Hearn (1978, 1982), Hershkovitz (1977), Hubrecht (1984, 1985), Kendrick &amp; Dixson (1983), Koenig (1995), Koenig &amp; Rothe (1991a, 1991b), Lazaro-Perea (2001), Lazaro-Perea, de Castro et al. (2000), Lazaro-Perea, Snowdon &amp; Arruda (1999), Maier et al. (1982), Melo et al. (2003), de Menezes (2004), Mills et al. (2004), Monteiro da Cruz (1998), Monteiro da Cruz &amp; Scanlon (1997), Nagamachi, Pieczarka &amp; Barros (1992), Nagamachi, Pieczarka, Schwarz et al. (1994), Neusser et al. (2005), Nievergelt et al. (2000), Norcross &amp; Newman (1993), de Oliveira et al. (1999), Olmos (1993), Peters &amp; Guerra (1998), Pontes &amp; Monteiro da Cruz (1995), Roda &amp; Pontes (1998), Moura (2007), Rothe (1975), Rothe &amp; Koenig (1991), Rothe, Darms et al. (1993), Rothe, Koenig &amp; Darms (1993), Ruiz-Miranda, Affonso, Martins &amp; Beck (2000), Ruiz-Miranda, Affonso, Morais et al. (2006), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993, 2009), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands &amp; de Faria (1993), Saltzman et al. (2004), Santee &amp; Arruda (1994), dos Santos &amp; Monteiro da Cruz (1997), Scanlon, Chalmers &amp; Monteiro da Cruz (1988, 1989), Scanlon, Monteiro da Cruz &amp; Rylands (1991), Silva, G.S. &amp; Monteiro da Cruz (1993), Silva, J.S. (1999), de Sousa, Albuquerque et al. (2009), de Sousa, Peregrino et al. (1999), de Sousa, Silva et al. (1999), Stevenson (1976a, 1976b, 1976¢, 1978b), Stevenson &amp; Poole (1976), Stevenson &amp; Sutcliffe (1978), Stevenson &amp; Rylands (1988), Tardif (1994, 1997), Tardif &amp; Garber (1994), Tardif &amp; Jaquish (1997), Tardif, Carson &amp; Gangaware (1986), Tardif, Harrison &amp; Simek (1993), Tardif, Power et al. (2002), Tardif, Santos et al. (2002), Wohnus &amp; Benirschke (1966), Ximenes &amp; de Sousa (1996), Yamamoto (1993, 2005), Yamamoto &amp; Box (1997), Yamamoto, Arruda et al. (2009), Yamamoto, Box et al. (1996).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFDBFFD5FAD7F5B269B9E414	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC7FFD6FFDBFE496A14E6AF.text	DF668780FFC7FFD6FFDBFE496A14E6AF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus nigricollis (Spix 1823)	<div><p>24.</p> <p>Black-mantled Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus nigricollis</p> <p>French: Tamarin rouge et noir / German: Schwarzriickentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de dorso negro Other common names: Black Mantle Tamarin; Graells's Black-mantled/Graells’s Tamarin (graellsi), Hernandez-Camacho's Black-mantled Tamarin (hernandezi), Spix's Black-mantled Tamarin (nigricollis)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas nigricollis Spix, 1823,</p> <p>Brazil, Amazonas, near Sao Paulo de OIivenca, north bank of the Rio Solimoes.</p> <p>The subspecies graellsi has been considered a distinct species by some, based on its supposed sympatry with the subspecies nigricollis north of the Rio Putumayo in Colombia (area of Puerto Asis and Puerto Leguizamo). A subsequent reassessment indicated that the specimens judged to be nigricollis were in fact dull-colored S. fuscus. A recent molecular genetic study indicated that graellsi and nigricollis were inseparable as species. Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. n. mgricollis Spix, 1823 — Brazilian Amazon, N Peru, and possibly SE Colombia, between the Rio Ica— Putumayo and the rios Solimoes-Amazonas and Napo, W as far the seasonally flooded forest varzea along the Tamboryacu. S. n. graellsiJiménez de la Espada, 1870 — S Colombia, NE Ecuador, and N Peru, S of the upper Rio Caqueta (W from the mouth of the Rio Yari) in Colombia, S to both sides of the upper Putumayo as far as the N (left) bank of the Rio Napo, extending E between the Napo and Putumayo as far as the seasonally flooded forest along the Tamboryacu. S. mn. hernandezi Hershkovitz, 1982 — S Colombia, Meta Department, between the rios Caqueta, Caguan, and Orteguaza and the base of the Cordillera Oriental to the Rio Guayabero.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21-25 cm, tail 31-35 cm; weight 420-500 g. In “Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin” (S. n. nigricollis), the head, neck, mantle, and forelimbs are black, grading into red or brownish-red on the hindparts. The forehead, crown, throat, and neck are blackish brown. Sides of the crown are brown. Facial skin is black, with short gray hairs around the mouth and nostrils. The base of the back and upper surface ofthe tail are marbled or striated reddish and blackish. Rump and legs and the underneath of the tail are mostly or almost entirely reddish or mahogany. The rest of the tail is blackish. The neck, chest, and belly are blackish, often mixed with red or mahogany color. External genitalia are mostly or entirely pigmented and sparsely covered with brown or reddish hairs. In “Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin” (S. n. graellsi), the head, throat, mantle, and forelimbs are blackish to blackish brown, finely ticked with gray or buffy. There are pale brown patches on the sides of the head and cheeks, which are distinctive in the adults. The mantle is squared-off rather than tapering asit is in Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin; it does not extend to the middle and lower back, which are mainly buffy agouti along with sides of the body, thighs,legs, and proximate dorsal part of the tail. The tail is otherwise blackish. The neck, chest, and belly vary from buffy agouti to blackish. Facial skin is black. Hairs around the mouth and sides of the nostrils are gray. The skin of external genitalia is black. The forehead and crown are blackish. In “Hernandez-Camacho’s Black-mantled Tamarin” (S. n. hernandezi), the nape, mantle, and throat are blackish. It differs from the other two subspecies in that the mantle tapers behind to the middle of the back and extends as a stripe down the back and onto the tail. Sides of the lower one-half of the back are orange-agouti and have a marbled appearance. The neck, chest, arms, legs, rump, and sides of the body are dominantly orange-agouti. The base of the hairs on the neck and throat are whitish. The belly is mixed orange and blackish. Sides of the crown and face have contrastingly paler hairs. Sides of the lower back are mixed blackish and orange. Sides and ventral surface of the first 5-10 cm of the tail are orange-agouti, but the remainder is black. Facial skin is moderately pigmented. The orange-agouti coloration distinguishes this subspecies, being replaced by buffy agouti in Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin and reddish or mahogany in Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin. Hernandez-Camacho’s Blackmantled Tamarin is like Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin in its dark, tapered mantle, but it also resembles Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin in its shorter mantle and finely banded, agouti hindlimbs.</p> <p>Habitat. Information on the Black-mantled Tamarin in the wild comes largely from three field studies: one in the Rio Peneya Basin, Colombia, by K. Izawa (Hernandez-Camacho’s Black-mantled Tamarin); the second in the Cuyabeno Reserve, Ecuador, by S. de la Torre and colleagues (Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin); and the third on the south bank of the Rio Guayabero in Tinigua National Natural Park, La Macarena, Colombia, by N. Vargas Tovar (Hernandez-Camacho’s Black-mantled Tamarin). Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin has not been studied in the wild. Black-mantled Tamarins forage and travel mostly in the dense growth of the forest understory at heights of up to 10 m above the ground. In the forest of the Rio Peneya, they used lowerstrata of the forest, mostly 2-10 m from the ground, and they sometimes foraged on the ground. In Ecuador, group home ranges include white-water flooded forest dominated by the palm Mauritia flexuosa, Arecaceae (locally referred to as “cananguchal”), black-water flooded forest (igapo), and seasonally flooded white-water forest (varzea), but they are mainly in terra firma forest. Black-mantled Tamarins forage for animal prey in patches of dense vegetation in disturbed or high secondary forest patches and edge habitat. Rainfall is high in Cuyabeno (3000 mm/year, with more than 250 mm/month during the rainy season), and forest productivity is high. The rainy season is from the middle of March through August, and the dry season is from September through early March. In the extreme north ofits distribution, the Black-mantled Tamarin can be found in an area of highly seasonal forest on poor soils (Tinigua National Natural Park). Annual rainfall is ¢.2300 mm, but with a marked dry season with less than 100 mm/month in December—February. In Tinigua, Black-mantled Tamarins spent more than one-third of their time in shrubby secondary growth (no higher than 5 m), which is locally referred to as “arrabal,” and frequently burned by nearby villagers. They spent much of their time (34%) in edge habitat, bordering the river, small lakes, and pastures, and also used tall forest (up to 20 m in height) and palm forest of Syagrus and Attalea, Arecaceae (up to 12 m in height and also severely affected by fire). They spent just over one-half of their time at heights ofless than 10 m above the ground, and nearly onehalf of their time foraging on animal prey was at heights up to 5 m. They used palm trees and vine tangles as sleeping sites.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. At Cuyabeno, Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarins eat fruits, especially from Pouteria cf. baehniana (Sapotaceae) and Protium cf. aracouchini (Burseraceae). Other members of these genera were also important in the diet, but the species were not identified. Fruits of Pseudolmedia laevis (Moraceae) and Eschweilera cf. coriacea (Lecythidaceae) were also important. They eat readily available gums from the bark of Inga marginata, I. ruiziana (Fabaceae), and Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae), and flowers and nectar from Araceae, possibly Anthurium. Small prey include grasshoppers (Orthoptera), ants (Hymenoptera), butterflies (Lepidoptera), termites (Isoptera), and beetles (Coleoptera). Hernandez-Camacho’s Black-mantled Tamarins in the forests of the Rio Peneya eatfruits, flowers, and also, opportunistically, gum exuded from Inga trunks and Parkia oppositifolia (Fabaceae) seed pods. Insects eaten include Orthoptera (particularly the families Tettigoniidae and Acrididae), Dermaptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Odonata, and Ephemeroptera. The large (6-8 cm long) grasshoppers that they particularly prefer are caught with both hands and then pushed down onto a branch; they eat the head first and then pull out and eat the entrails. They pull off the wings, gnaw at their bases, and then drop them. The body and all or parts of the legs are eaten, exceptfor the thicker, often spiny, hindlegs. Fruits are mainly eaten from trees in the lower canopy and particularly include Leonia cymosa (Violaceae) in October, Pourouma lawrancei (Urticaceae) in December—January, along with Pseudolmedia laevis, Protium sagotianum (Burseraceae), Coussapoa mutisii (Urticaceae), and Helicostylis tomentosa (Moraceae). Black-mantled Tamarins in Tinigua National Natural Park eat fruits of Protium, Pourouma, Cecropia, Ficus, and various species of Melastomataceae, including two species of Miconia in the early wet season. Animal prey include insects (especially Orthoptera in the families Romaleidae, Acrididae, and Tettigoniidae, and lepidopteran larvae) and lizards. They also eat flowers from a species of Ochroma (Bombacaceae).</p> <p>Breeding. At Cuyabeno, births of Black-mantled Tamarins are concentrated in January (toward the end of the dry season), and some groups also have infants in June (middle of the wet season). Interbirth interval is about five months. This bimodality is believed to reflect the richness of the forests there, and resource-dependent flexibility on the part of the tamarins—breeding a second time when conditions are favorable. In the Rio Peneya Valley, births were concentrated in the wet season in December—February, but as at Cuyabeno, there was a second smaller birth peak when some groups produced twins in June.</p> <p>Activity patterns. In the rich forests of Cuyabeno, activity budgets of one group of Black-mantled Tamarins during the dry season and wet season were as follows. In the dry season, 34-8% of the time was spent foraging for animal prey, 27-2% resting, 21% traveling, and 17% feeding. In the rainy season, they foraged for animal prey (38-4%), rested (29-8%), and traveled a bit more (25:6%) and spentless time feeding (6-2%). Differences were perhaps associated with more abundant but more dispersed plant food sources in the wet season. In the dry season, food sources were more concentrated (patchy) and less abundant. In Tinigua, in the far north of the species’ distribution, Black-mantled Tamarins are active longer during the day in the dry season than in the wet season. In the dry season, they initiate their daily activities at 04:00-04:30 h and return to their sleeping site at 18:45-19:15 h. In the wet season, they become active later (05:00-05:30 h) and retire earlier (16:00-16:30 h). In general, the typical length of daily activity for tamarins is 10-4-11-6 hours, but Black-mantled Tamarins at Tinigua are active on average 14-6 hours/day, probably because of the very high midday temperatures and food scarcity, particularly in the dry season. They rest for unusually long periods at midday and have two pronounced peaks of foraging on animal prey and fruit, one in the early morning and anotherlate in the afternoon.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Black-mantled Tamarins form groups of up to eleven individuals. Ten groups monitored in the Rio Peneya Basin averaged 6-3 ind/group (including infants), three with two adult males and three with two adult females. A group of eight had two adult males and two adult females. In Cuyabeno, ten groups varied in size from a breeding pair to nine individuals (average of five). All but one of the groups had just one adult pair and its offspring. One group had two adult males. Groups at the Rio Peneya had home ranges of 42-56 ha, with considerable overlap (as much as 80%). A group of 7-9 Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarins in the Cuyabeno Reserve occupied a home range of 56-2 ha in the dry season and 41-7 ha in the wet season, and their home range also overlapped extensively (more than 80%) with other groups. Temporary formations of large groups were recorded at all three study sites—the result of 2-3 neighboring groups mingling for sometimes an hour or more with little or no evident antagonism. Densities were 10-13 ind/km*at the Rio Peneya and 22-33 ind/km?*at Cuyabeno. Densities of Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin along the Rio Pureté, Colombia, were 4-15 ind/km?. Surveys along the Rio Ampiyacu, Peru, found 3-2 groups/km? or 19-2 ind/km?®. Barred forest-falcons (Micrastur ruficollis) are known to prey on Black-mantled Tamarins, and other potential predators include harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja), Tayra (Eira barbara), and Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Recent surveys in Ecuador and Peru, however, have indicated that distribution of Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin is much smaller than had been supposed, and it is listed as Near Threatened because the region where it occurs has one of the highestrates of deforestation in the western Amazon. Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin is regarded as common in Peru, and although it was heavily exploited for export for biomedical research in the 1960s and 1970s, it is common in Colombia. Its status in Brazil is unknown. In Colombia, Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin probably occurs in Amacayacu National Natural Park and possibly La Paya National Natural Park. There are no protected areas in the Peruvian part the distribution of Spix’s Black-mantled Tamarin. In Ecuador, Graells’s Black-mantled Tamarin occurs in the Limoncocha Biological Reserve on the north bank of the Rio Napo, Cuyabeno Reserve, and Wildsumaco Wildlife Sanctuary. Sangay National Park and Cayambé-Coca Faunal Ecological Reserve are within its distribution, but its presence in these protected areas has not been verified. Hernandez-Camacho’s Black-mantled Tamarin has a very small distribution, restricted to Colombia, but no information is available regarding its conservation status. North-east of the headwaters of the Rio Caguan,it occurs in dry forests of the Tinigua National Natural Park. It is not known if it occurs in the Cordillera de los Picachos National Natural Park to the north of Tinigua, or on the west bank of the Rio Guayabero.</p> <p>Bibliography. Chase &amp; Cooper (1969), Defler (1994b, 2003b, 2004), Freese, Freese &amp; Castro (1977), Freese, Heltne et al. (1982), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Defler (1989), Hershkovitz (1977, 1982), Izawa (1975, 1976, 1978a), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini et al. (1989), de la Torre (1996, 2000), de la Torre, Campos &amp; de Vries (1995), de la Torre, Utreras &amp; Campos (1995), Vanderhoff &amp; Nillson (2010), Vargas (1994).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC7FFD6FFDBFE496A14E6AF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC6FFD6FF3AF8EE670EE2C1.text	DF668780FFC6FFD6FF3AF8EE670EE2C1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus fuscus (Lesson 1840)	<div><p>25.</p> <p>Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus fuscus</p> <p>French: Tamarin de Lesson / German: Brauner Sattelrlickentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Lesson</p> <p>Taxonomy. Leontocebus fuscus Lesson, 1840,</p> <p>“Plaines de Mocoa,” the lowlands of the Mocoa district, between the rios Putumayo and Caqueta, Putumayo, Colombia.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis but molecular genetic evidence indicates thatit is closer phylogenetically to S. nigricollis than S. fuscicollis, and sufficiently distinct as to warrant specific status. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Colombia and NW Brazil (Amazonas State), N of the Rio Solimoes between the rios Japura-Caqueta and Ica-Putumayo, W of the Rio Yari to the N of the Rio Caquetd, through the basin of the Rio Caguan, and lower parts of the Rio Orteguaza, W to the Andean foothills to 500 m above sea level.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22-9 cm (males) and 22-3 cm (females), tail 34-6 cm (males) and 35 cm (females); weight ¢.350-400 g. The crown, forehead, and cheeks of Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin are covered by black hairs. Facial skin is black, and there are short gray hairs around the mouth and sides of the nostrils. Hairs on the sides of the head beneath the ears are reddish brown to blackish brown. The mantle is orangebrown and evenly ticked with black hairs. The lower back (saddle) is marbled buffy and black. Arms, rump, and thighs are the same color as the mantle. Upper surface of hands and feet are blackish mixed with orange. The throat, chest, belly, and inner parts of limbs are rufous,lightly suffused with blackish or dark brown hairs. The tail is black with the ventral surface of the basal third being rufous.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest. Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin prefers dense vegetation in secondary forest and tree falls, but it has not been studied in the wild.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There have been some observations on Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin near Mocoa on the Rio Caqueta and on an island in the Rio Guineo, Putumayo. They are found in groups of 5-10 individuals. They have been observed traveling with Goeldi’s Monkey (Callimico goeldii). A population survey in floodplain forest near the Quebradon el Ayo, Colombia, a small clearwater tributary south of the Rio Caqueta near the Brazilian border, found 16-9 ind/km* or 3 groups/km?®.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Last (as S. fuscicollis fuscus). Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin is widespread and common. Although hunted to some extent for food and for pets,it is not threatened.Its status in Brazil is unknown. The Juami-Japura Ecological Station and the Mamiraua Sustainable Development Area are within its supposed geographic distribution in Brazil, but its presence there has not been confirmed. In Colombia, it occurs in La Paya and Cahuinari national natural parks.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cheverud (1995), Cheverud &amp; Moore (1990), Cropp et al. (1999), Defler (1994b, 2003b, 2004), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Defler (1985, 1989), Hershkovitz (1977), Moynihan (1976), Palacios &amp; Peres (2005), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC6FFD6FF3AF8EE670EE2C1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC6FFD6FA31FD0B6893EB5C.text	DF668780FFC6FFD6FA31FD0B6893EB5C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus tripartitus (Milne-Edwards 1878)	<div><p>26.</p> <p>Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus tripartitus</p> <p>French: Tamarin a manteau doré / German: Goldmanteltamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de dorso dorado Other common names: Golden-mantle Saddleback Tamarin, Golden-mantled Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas tripartitus Milne-Edwards, 1878,</p> <p>Rio Napo, Oriente, Ecuador.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. Molecular genetic analysis has indicated thatit forms a clade with neighboring S. lagonotus south of the rios Napo and Curaray. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE Ecuador and N Peru, between the rios Napo and Curaray in Peru, extending W into Ecuadorto the S of the rios Napo and Indillama, and N of the Curaray.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 22-26 cm, tail 32-34 cm; weight ¢.400 g. The mantle of the Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin is golden-orange to creamy and sharply defined from the black fur on the head and the gray to golden marbled back. The head and facial skin are black. There are grayish-white hairs around the mouth and the sides of the nostrils, and a grayish or white chevron on the forehead between the eyes. Arms are orange colored, and thighs are grizzled orange, being mixed more with brown. Upper surfaces of hands and feet are orange and lined with black. The chest, belly, and inner parts of arms and legs have orange-colored fur. The tail is predominantly black but has a reddish-orange patch along the basal part by the rump. External genitalia are pigmented black.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland evergreen forests, lowland areas (“bajiales”), and forests in hilly areas (“bosque de colina”). The terrain in the Yasuni National Park where Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarins occur is hilly and includes terra firma forest and inundated palm (Mauritia flexuosa, Arecaceae) swamp. They are usually seen in the lower and middle strata of the forest and use vine tangles and dense vegetation as refuges for sleeping.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet of the Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin consists of fruit, small animal prey, especially insects, and nectar.</p> <p>Breeding. The birth season of the Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin is not well defined, but along the Rio Curaray, newborns have been recorded in October—January, the first half of the wet season.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Information on the ecology and behavior is limited mostly to a few observations concerning group sizes and vegetation types where they have been observed. The Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin lives in groups of 4-10 individuals (mean 6-3 ind/group, n = 6).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin occurs in the Yasuni National Park. Its distribution is quite restricted. Forests where they occur along the Rio Yasuni in Ecuador are remote, and human densities are currently low. Nevertheless, occurrence of petroleum in the region, resulting in the construction of the Pompeya-Iro Highway,is reason for concern for the future of these forests and their wildlife.</p> <p>Bibliography. Albuja (1994), Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b, 1996), Aquino et al. (2005), Encarnacion et al. (1990), Hershkovitz (1977), Heymann (2000a), Heymann &amp; Canaquin (2003), Heymann, Encarnacion &amp; Canaquin (2002), Kostrub (1997, 2002, 2003), Matauschek et al. (2011), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993), Rylands, Matauschek et al. (2011), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Thorington (1988), Tirira (2007), de la Torre (1996, 2000), de la Torre, Utreras &amp; Campos (1995).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC6FFD6FA31FD0B6893EB5C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC6FFD1FA3DF47D6B97E6A9.text	DF668780FFC6FFD1FA3DF47D6B97E6A9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus lagonotus (Jimenez de la Espada 1870)	<div><p>27.</p> <p>Red-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus lagonotus</p> <p>French: Tamarin 8 manteau rouge / German: Rotschultertamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de dorso rojo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas lagonotus Jiménez de la Espada, 1870,</p> <p>type locality is based on syntypes from three localities: two in Ecuador, “La Coca, Rio Napo ™” and “Humuyacu, Rio Napo ” nearby, and one at Tarapoto in Peru, a tributary of the left bank of the Napo. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to the right bank of the Napo.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. Molecular genetic analysis has placed it in a distinct clade with S. tripartitus. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. E Ecuador and NE Peru, S of the rios Napo and Curaray, E to the Rio Amazonas, and N of the Rio Maranon; the SW limit is uncertain, but it occurs in the region of the rios Santiago, Chinchipe, and Cenepa,left bank tributaries of the Maranon.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 24 cm (males) and 22 cm (females), tail 30 cm (males) and 32 cm (females); weight c.350-400 g. The Red-mantled Saddleback Tamarin has a black forehead, crown, throat, and sides of head. The mantle is reddish to dark mahogany. The rump and outer sides ofthighs are dark reddish like the mantle. Facial skin is black. There are short gray hairs around the mouth and sides of the nostrils, and also some sparse grayish hairs between the eyes, providingjust a pale suggestion ofthe chevron, which is very distinct in the closely related Golden-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin (S. tripartitus). The back is striated black with buffy colored hairs. Upper surfaces of hands and feet are black. The chest and inner sides of arms are reddish, but heavily washed with black or almost completely black. The tail is black except for a short reddish part at the base extending onto the rump. External genitalia are pigmented black.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest. The Red-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin prefers dense vegetation in secondary forest and tree falls.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of the Red-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin consist of small fruits, nectar, gums and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Surveys for the Red-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin along the Rio Nanay in 1974 found it to be the second most common primate in the terra firma forests ofthe area, with densities of 2-6 groups/km? or 15-6 ind/km?. Otherwise, it has not been studied in the wild.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as S. fuscicollis lagonotus). The Red-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin is widespread and common. In 1982, it was reported to be one of the most frequently encountered primates on the Rio Nanay, a left bank tributary of the Rio Amazonas, just above the Rio Napo. It occurs in Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve in Peru and possibly in the lowland forests in Sangay National Park in Ecuador.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Freese, Freese &amp; Castro (1977), Freese, Heltne et al. (1982), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Heymann, Encarnacion &amp; Canaquin (2002), Hodun et al. (1981), Kostrub (1997), Matauschek et al. (2011), Mittermeier et al. (1978), Rylands, Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1993), Rylands, Matauschek et al. (2011), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini et al. (1989), Thorington (1988), Tirira (2007), de la Torre (1996, 2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC6FFD1FA3DF47D6B97E6A9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC1FFD1FFDAF8EF67D9E3F3.text	DF668780FFC1FFD1FFDAF8EF67D9E3F3.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus leucogenys (Gray 1866)	<div><p>28.</p> <p>Andean Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus leucogenys</p> <p>French: Tamarin des Andes / German: Anden-Sattelriickentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin andino</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas leucogenys Gray, 1866,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1966 to the Department of Huanuco, Peru.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. Molecular genetic analysis found intergradation between the darkbrown mantled S. illiger: and the blackermantled S. leucogenys in the San Martin area in Moyobamba and the Rio Mayo Valley, where S. leucogenys looked more similar to S. ulligeri than along the Rio Ucayali and Rio Tapiche. Phenotypic similarity was reflected in the their mitochondrial data—all individuals in the northern part of the distribution of S. leucogenys formed a well-supported clade with S. illigeri, but all individuals from the southern part ofthe distribution ofleucogenys fell into a clade that included the southern saddle-back tamarins S. wedddelli, S. fuscicollis, S. nigrifrons, and S. melanoleucus. The southern population has the very dark mantle seen in the leucogenys type. The split ofthe northern and southern populations ofleucogenys (either side ofthe Rio Pachitea) indicates the need for more research and a reassessment ofthe taxonomy. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NC Peru, from S of Rio Maranon, from San Martin through Huanuco and Pasco to the Rio Perené, N Junin, E to W ofthe Rio Huallaga and the upper Rio Ucayali, and S ofthe Rio Pisqui; probably not above elevations of 900-1000 m.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-5-23 cm, tail 30-5-33 cm; weight ¢.350-400 g. The head, mantle, forelimbs, throat, and upper part of the chest of the Andean Saddleback Tamarin are dominantly black or blackish brown, sometimes agouti. The front of the thigh, otherwise orange, usually has a dark patch, and, unlike Weddell’s Saddleback Tamarin (S. weddellr), there is no white blaze on the forehead between the eyes. Outersides ofthe arms are like the mantle, but slightly more ticked with orange. The saddle is marbled buffy and black. The rump is orange. Upper surface of hands and feet are black. The lower chest, belly, and inner sides ofthighs are reddish, washed or lined with black. The tail is black, except for a reddish part at the base. External genitalia are mostly or entirely black.</p> <p>Habitat. High-elevation forests up to 900-1000 m above sea level along the eastern base of the Andean range. In the Panguana Biological Station, the Andean Saddleback Tamarin has been seen in primary forest, secondary forest, forest edge, and riveredge (riparian) forest, and around plantations and human habitation.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Andean Saddle-back Tamarin eats small fruits, nectar, gums, and small animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as S. fuscicollis leucogenys). The Andean Saddle-back Tamarin is endemic to the Peruvian Amazon. It is common in the Pucallpa area to the west of the Rio Ucayali. It occurs in Tingo Maria National Park, Yanachaga Chemillén National Park, probably low-lying parts of Alto Mayo Protection Forest, and Panguana Biological Station in the southern part ofits distribution. Other protected areas within its distribution include Yanesha Communal Reserve, San Matias-San Carlos Protection Forest, and Pui-pui Protection Forest, but there is no information as to whether they actually occur there. It has not been recorded in Rio Abiseo National Park, probably because of its high elevation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Freese et al. (1982), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Hutterer et al. (1995), Matauschek et al. (2011), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini et al. (1989).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC1FFD1FFDAF8EF67D9E3F3	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC1FFD0FAD3FC216B09EDE8.text	DF668780FFC1FFD0FAD3FC216B09EDE8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus illigeri (Pucheran 1845)	<div><p>29.</p> <p>Ilhiger’s Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus illigeri</p> <p>French: Tamarin d'llliger / German: Schwarzkopftamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de llliger</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale illiger: Pucheran, 1845,</p> <p>type locality unknown. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1996 to the left bank ofthe lower rio Ucayali, near its mouth, Loreto, Peru.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. Intergradation between S. illigeri and S. leucogenys has recently been discovered in the San Martin area in Moyobamba and the Rio MayoValley, and the resemblance of these two species is more apparent there than along the Rio Ucayali and Rio Tapiche. This similarity between the phenotypes was mirrored in the mitochondrial data, with S. leucogenys forming a well-supported clade with S. illigeri in the northern part ofthe former’s distribution. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. E Peru, between the rios Huallaga and Ucayali, S of the Rio Maranon, and E of the Rio Ucayali, from the mouth of the Rio Blanco and along the left bank ofthe Rio Tapiche.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢.20 cm, tail ¢.31 cm; weight mean 293 g (n = 14). IIliger’s Saddle-back Tamarin has a black forehead and crown and a blackish throat. The mantle and outer sides of arms are chestnut. The facial skin is black, with short gray hairs surrounding the mouth and nostrils. The mantle is short, extending only just beyond the shoulders. The saddle is marbled black and gray or buffy to ocherous. Rump and thighs are reddish orange, and upper surfaces of the hands and feet are black, often mixed with reddish. The chest, belly, and innersides of limbs are reddish. The tail is black except for a short reddish part extending onto the rump. External genitalia are mostly or entirely black.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest and seasonally flooded varzea forest. Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarin prefers dense vegetation in secondary forest and tree falls. Demography, daily activities, movements, diet, and habitat use were studied intermittently between 1979 and 1984 by P. Soini at a site on the 4-3-km? fluvial island of Cahuana, in an ox-bow lake ofthe Rio Pacaya in Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in north-eastern Peru.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarin include mainly fruits, plant exudates (gums and nectar), arthropods, frogs and lizards, some flowers, leat buds, and honey. Soini recorded his study group eating fruits from nearly 60 plant species, and fruits were the main food resource in all months of the year except September in the peak ofthe dry season when gums were important. Nectar was also consumed in relatively large quantities (13% ofthe diet) in the early dry season, notably from the vine Combretum fruticosum (Combretaceae). For nearly all fruits, the succulent or viscid mesocarp or aril was eaten. In the early wet season, fruits of Cordia ule: (Boraginaceae) and Ficus (Moraceae) were important; in the middle ofthe wet season, Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae), Inga mathewsiana (Fabaceae), Pourouma (Urticaceae), and Celtis iguanaea (Ulmaceae); and in the late wet season, Brosimum rubescens (Moraceae), Inga, and Celtis. The major resource species were used intensively during their fruiting periods, and in all but one of the 13 months of Soini’s study, just 1-2 species accounted for more than 70% of the plant parts of the diet in each month. Fruits ofthe liana Odontocarya tripetala (Menispermaceae) were important in the dry season, but gums were a larger component ofthe diet at this time when fruits were scarce. Thirteen plants supplied gums, including gum that exuded abundantly from seed pods ofthe leguminous tree, Parkia oppositifolia. Other gum sources arose from abrasion and windstorm injuries, insect perforations, and holes gouged by squirrels or other rodents on the bark of trees and woody vines. Gums of Parkia oppositifolia (Fabaceae), an unknown legiminous tree, Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae), and Lonchocarpus glabrescens (Fabaceae) were most important in the dry season. After eating readily available gum, Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarin often bit and chewed small pieces ofbark, although this behavior was not comparable to the specialized tree-gouging of the marmosets. Animal prey included grasshoppers and other orthopterans, cicadas (important in January-February when they emerged), butterflies, moths, larvae, spiders, frogs, and lizards (mainly Gonatodes humeralis and Anolis fuscoauratus). Their predominant form of foraging for hidden animal prey involved a manipulative search in cavities, tree holes, and specific sites in the lowest levels of the forest; 67% of their foraging time was in the shrub stratum below 5 m above ground. Occasionally, they drank by dipping a hand into a tree cavity containing water, and then licking it; sometimes they licked moist surfaces of leaves.</p> <p>Breeding. At Cahuana, births of Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins occurred throughout the year, but with a peak; 69% ofthe litters were born in December-March (early to mid wet season) when fruits and insects were abundant. Of seven births recorded in one group, interbirth intervals were 6—c.15 months but were usually 8-9 months. Although not showing physical signs, sexual receptivity is reflected in consort behavior (mate guarding) by males, which can extend five days, with copulations occurring on the fourth and fifth day.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Typical daily activity lasts nearly twelve hours, beginning a little after sunrise at 05:35-06:20 h and ending well before sunset at ¢.17:00-17:55 h; rain can cause an early end to daily activities. Sleeping sites are usually in the crotch or proximal part of a branch, or in a dense vine tangle, in the lower or middle crowns of medium-sized to tall trees overlooking treefalls or low vegetation. After leaving their sleeping sites, Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins travel to a nearby fruit source, often where they were eating the previous afternoon, and then dedicate the rest of the morning to foraging for animal prey, with intermittent visits to other fruit sources. A brief resting bout is typical at 08:00 h—10:00 h, but ¢.12:00 h, or in the early afternoon, they spend one to two hours resting and grooming. In the afternoon, they return to foraging, punctuated by visits to fruiting trees or gum sources. They spend c.45% of their time searching for, manipulating, and eating small animal prey, principally insects, 32% grooming and resting, 14% eating fruits, gums, or other plant materials, 6% traveling, and 3% in miscellaneous other activities. As is typical for saddle-back tamarins, Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins prefer the lowest levels of the forest, spending 82% of their day below 11 m and only c.2% in the highest stratum above 20 m. About 50% of their day is spent 1-4 m above the ground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. With a density of 15-18 ind/km? in the Cahuana study area, Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins were the third most abundant primate after Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) and Colombian Red Howlers (Alouatta seniculus). Modal group size was six individuals (range 2-10), not including dependent infants. Groups contained a dominant breeding female, her mate, the young from her 1-2 latest litters, and a less stable component of subadults and adults. Home range size of a group studied intensively from 1979 to 1980 was 15-7 ha, increasing in the latter part of the study to 16-5 ha. The group periodically patrolled its home range and often defended its borders, chasing and fighting with members of a neighboring group. The group traveled distances of 1113-1991 m/day (average 1405 m) and was usually in a cohesive unit, with individuals 50 m or less apart. Their ranging patterns changed somewhat between seasons, and they traveled longer distances in the dry season when fruits were scarce. In the wet season when fruits are more abundant, daily movements were shorter, and travel paths were more meandering. The main factors that influenced their daily movements were spatial distribution and availabilities of food resources and the need to patrol their home range boundaries. Capuchin monkeys (Cebus and Sapajus) were also a factor, and Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins avoided them when they passed through their home range. When approached by capuchin monkeys, the tamarins became very quiet and evasive, abruptly moving into shrub vegetation, indicating that the capuchins may be occasional predators. Occasionally, solitary or all-male groups of 2-5 Bolivian Squirrel Monkeys followed Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins for periods of several days. Relations were not exactly harmonious; when a squirrel monkey moved too close to a resting or feeding tamarin, the tamarin would either confront it with mild threat vocalizations or move away. Squirrel monkeys fed in all fruit trees used by the tamarins and often supplanted them. Likewise, squirrel monkeys foraged for animal prey in the same sites as those used by the tamarins, and Soini regarded them as the most important competitors at his study site. Northern Amazon Red Squirrels (Sciurus igniventris) were usually ignored, although Soini reported once seeing an entire group of Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarins put to flight from a feeding tree by a squirrel that possibly had a nest there. A number of birds exploit the same insects and fruits as the tamarins. Agressive interactions were seen in fruiting trees between them and Cuvier’s toucans (Ramphastos tucanus cuvien), chestnut-eared aracaris (Pleroglossus castanotis), and speckled chachalacas (Ortalis guttata). Potential predators of the tamarins include birds of prey (accipitrids and falconids) and the Tayra (Eira barbara). They have been seen mobbing snakes; e.g. emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) high up in a tree and a bushmaster (Lachests muta) resting on the ground between the stilt roots of a tree. In 1980, the density of Mliger’s Saddle-back Tamarins at Cahuana in the Pacaya-Samiria Basin was 15 ind/ km? or 2 groups/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as S. fuscicollis illigeri). Illiger’s Saddle-back Tamarin is endemic to the Peruvian Amazon. It adapts well to areas with human disturbance, often seen visiting plantations of banana and other cultivated fruits. It is rarely hunted in areas where human density is low, and threats to their survival arise only when forests are completely eliminated or fragmented over wide areas for cattle pasture and agriculture. It occurs in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Egozcue et al. (1969), Garber (1993a, 1993b), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Garber (1993), Hodun et al. (1981), Matauschek et al. (2011), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini (1986, 1987a, 1990a, 1990b), Soini &amp; Coppula (1981), Soini et al. (1989), Tapia et al. (1990).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC1FFD0FAD3FC216B09EDE8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC0FFD3FA0FFEF46724E432.text	DF668780FFC0FFD3FA0FFEF46724E432.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus nigrifrons (I.Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1850)	<div><p>30.</p> <p>Geoftroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus nigrifrons</p> <p>French: Tamarin a front noir / German: Schwarzstirntamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de frente negra</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale nigrifrons 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1850,</p> <p>type locality unknown. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to the lower Rio Yavari.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. A molecular genetic analysis by C. Matauscheck and colleagues published in 2011 placed it in a distinct clade with S. fuscicollis, S. weddelli, S. melanoleucus, and the S. leucogenys specimens that they sampled south of the Rio Pachitea.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE Peru, between the rios Amazonas and Yavari, to the right bank of the rios Ucayali and Tapiche as far as the Rio Blanco (upstream of the Rio Ucayali along both sides of the river, to the S of the Rio Blanco,it is replaced by S. illigeri), but it appears again on the right bank of the Rio Ucayali at the headwaters of the Rio Tapiche, a left bank tributary of the Rio Blanco, probably extending E as far as the Rio Yavari, on the border with Brazil.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body c.21 cm,tail ¢.32 cm; weight mean 366 g (n =50). At the Rio Blanco, Peru, mean weight of 33 adult males was 412-8 + 25-7 g, with a range of 365—482-5 g. Weights of 15 pregnant and lactating females did not differ from weights of males, averaging 411-7 + 47-6 g but with a greater range of 327-535-2 g. The black fur of the forehead and sides of the head of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins contrasts sharply with the predominantly buffy-orange agouti of the crown, extending to the mantle. Facial skin is black, and there are short gray hairs surrounding the mouth and sides of the nostrils. Outer sides of upper arms are darker than the mantle, and forearms and inner parts of arms are blackish. The saddle is well defined, striated, or marbled black, grayish, or buffy. The rump and thighs are reddish orange, similar to the mantle, and upper surfaces of hands and feet have black hairs. The chest is dark brown to black with occasional orange or reddish hairs. The tail is black, exceptfor the base, which is rufous. External genitalia are pigmented black.</p> <p>Habitat. Tall and secondary lowland rainforest, with a preference for dense vegetation in secondary forest, tree falls, and edge habitat. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin has been the subject of a numberofstudies in the wild: on the left (south) bank of the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the Rio Tahuayo (in turn a tributary of the Rio Amazonas, a little upstream from Iquitos) by M. Ramirez, M. Norconk, and P. Garber (Estacion Biologica Quebrada Blanco 1) and on the right (north) bank of the Rio Blanco by R. Castro, T. Fang, and E. Heymann and colleagues (Estacion Biologica Quebrada Blanco 2).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins consist mainly of fruits, notably from the families Sapotaceae, Urticaceae (Cecropia, Pourouma), Moraceae, and Fabaceae (Inga); gums from a wide range of species but mainly of Parkia (Fabaceae); and small animal prey, mainly large grasshoppers but also spiders and small vertebrates such as lizards and frogs. One study at Quebrada Blanco, estimated that 59-8% of the diet was fruit pulp, 17% pod exudate (gum) from P. panurensis (Fabaceae), 13-3% gum readily exuded from tree trunks, 4-4% nectar, and 5-8% animal prey. In all, 124 plant species were exploited for food. Fruits eaten are largely drupes or arils of single or large number of small seeds. They are taken into the mouth whole, and the fibrous parts are spat out, either with seeds or alone. Drier mealy pulp is scraped off, and seeds are usually dropped. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins are important seed dispersers. Seeds of 81 species are ingested and dispersed, including Parkia seeds swallowed when they eat the copious gum of the seed pods. Seeds from Anomospermum grandifolium (Menispermaceae) were most dispersed by Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins, occurring in 14:6% of 1699 dispersal events (i.e. number of times at least one seed of any of the 81 species was found in 1376 faecal samples). Seeds from Parkia were ranked second, occurring in 13-7% of the dispersal events. Fruit consumption drops slightly during the dry season, but fruit provided a higher percentage of the diet of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins throughout the year than has been recorded for other saddle-back tamarins (e.g. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin, S. weddelli, in the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru). Tree species tend to provide fruit synchronously and produce only small amounts of ripe fruit each day. A 14-month study, specifically examining consumption of gum and its nutritional importance, estimated that it contributed 21-2% of the plant part of the diet. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins took gum from 84 individual plants of 17 species, the most important being Parkia nitida that provided gum from its capitula (dense, flat clusters of small flowers), seed pods, and trunk. Other important gum-providing species included P. igneiflora, Sloanea floribunda (Elacocarpaceae), Peltogyne altissima (Fabaceae), and an unidentified liana (that accounted for 18% of the exudate eaten by the tamarins). Both gums and nectar, especially from the flowers of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae), are important food sources during the dry season months ofJuly, August, and September. As is typical of all saddle-back tamarins, Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins forage for animal prey mostly on vertical substrata (trunks and lianas) in crevices and knot holes, mostly (68% of the time) at heights below 5 m and occasionally stalking and picking through leaf litter on the ground. Large orthopterans are preferred prey. Geoffroy’s Saddleback Tamarin will catch and eat Proscopiidae (stick grasshoppers), Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), especially Tettigoniidae (katydids, including five of its subfamilies), and Gryllacrididae (raspy and camel crickets). They also eat praying mantises (Mantodea, Mantidae), giant cockroaches (Blattodea, Blaberidae), lepidoptera, stick insects, cicadas, weevils, spiders, spider eggs, and scorpions. Their foraging techniques and the places they search are notably distinct from those of the middle to lower canopy, foliage-foraging “Spix’s Mustached Tamarins” (S. mystax mystax), with which they associate. Both mustached and saddle-back tamarins forage in (and drink water from) bromeliads. Studies of prey-capture comparing Spix’s Mustached and Geoffroy’s Saddle-back tamarins found that overlap in prey species was minimal. In one study, only three of the 35 species identified were eaten by both primates —an overlap of only 9-4%. In a second study, overlap was higher at 34%; 31 of 62 prey species that could be identified were eaten only by Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin, ten were eaten only by Spix’s Mustached Tamarin, and 21 were eaten by both primates. The two primates differ in their foraging techniques when seeking animal prey. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins take larger and brownerprey, foraging in dark refuges; however, they benefit from green insects that fly or fall to the ground, flushed by Spix’s Mustached Tamarins foraging above them. Spix’s Mustached Tamarins forage in the foliage and find and eat generally smaller and greener insects. Vertebrate prey include frogs (Osteocephalus and Phyllomedusa: Hylidae) and reptiles, including Anolis (Iguanidae), Kentropyx (Teiidae), Mabuya (Scincidae), and Norops (Polychrotidae), mostly taken at heights below 10 m above the ground. A comparison of sympatric Spix’s Mustached and Geoffroy’s Saddle-back tamarins found that the former caught more tree frogs and latter more reptiles, as would be expected from their different foraging techniques. Nestling birds are eaten very occasionally.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but aspects of reproduction and breeding are undoubtedly those of saddle-back tamarins in general. Ovarian cycles last 26 days. Gestation is 145-152 days, with interbirth intervals as short as six months. Females mature at about three months. Births can occur throughout the year but peak from November to February in the early to middle wet season. Infanticide was once observed in a group of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins at the Quebrada Blanco—a case of a mother killing her newborn that had fallen several times on the day it was born and may have been wounded or born debilitated, with little likelihood of survival.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Groups of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin are active for c.10-12 hours/day, beginning at ¢.06:00 h and entering sleeping sites at ¢.15:30-17:25 h. Foraging for animal prey takes up 15-23% oftheir day, feeding c.13%, traveling c.25%, and resting c.42%. Five types of sleeping sites have been identified: palm crowns ofJessenia bataua (Arecaceae) (most frequent); tree hollows (second most frequent); dense, tangled vegetation formed by epiphytic growth and vines; crotches of branches; and horizontal branches in the open—all mostly at 6-15 m above the ground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Geoffroy’s Saddleback Tamarins are 3-10 individuals, with an average of 5-8 ind/group, excluding 1-2 dependent infants. At Jenaro Herrera on the east bank of the Rio Ucayali, six groups averaged 6 ind/km* (range 3-6). In 62 groups counted at three other localities (Rio Maniti, Rio Tahuayo, and Rio Tapiche), average number of adults was 3-2 ind/group, with those besides the reproductive pair usually being males. Females leave their natal group at an earlier age than males. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins at Quebrada Blanco occupy home ranges of ¢.40 ha, which overlap with other neighboring groups, and they travel c.1845 m/day. Encounters between groups are characterized by vigilance, vocal battles, chases, and physical combat, with both males and females participating. Aggressive behavior is coordinated among group members and directed mainly toward others of the same sex. Usually the group battles last ¢.25 minutes, but they can persist for as long as two hours. These encounters were usually at the locations of important feeding trees, and boundary areas not associated with these feeding trees were rarely defended. Success in defending the feeding tree was related to the size of the group. Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins form mixed-species groups with Spix’s Mustached Tamarins. They sleep in separate sites but join up in the morning and spend ¢.82% of their time traveling together—Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins mostly in the understory and Spix’s Mustached Tamarins mostly in the middle and lower canopy. These two primates have minimal social interactions, with about one interaction noted for every five hours of observation. Most interactions were agonistic, with the dominant Spix’s Mustached Tamarin displacing, threatening, and chasing away Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin from food sources, particularly when the canopy and number of available ripe fruits were small. The two species are known to groom each other in captivity, but this is evidently rare in wild groups. Geoftroy’s Saddle-back and Spix’s Mustached tamarins at the Quebrada Blanco respond to their respective alarm calls, which are given at a rate of about one every two hours. Birds that cause alarm include vultures, forest-falcons (Micrastur), black-collared hawks (Busarellus nigricollis), double-toothed kites (Harpagus bidentatus), smooth-billed anis (Crotophaga ani), herons, yellow-rumped caciques (Cacicus cela), toucans (Ramphastos) and parrots. Double-toothed kites are insectivorous, capturing their prey on the wing, and they tend to follow monkey groups, including capuchin monkeys (Cebus and Sapajus), squirrel monkeys (Saimiri), and tamarins, evidently taking advantage of insects flushed as the primates forage—cicadas in particularly at certain times of the year. Doubletoothed kites may follow groups of tamarins for more than two hours and are generally ignored; however, sometimes tamarins attempt to drive off a kite, and when it takes flight, the tamarins emit alarm calls. The rate of these alarm calls increases whenever kites follow tamarins. Similar but briefer associations have been observed with whitefronted nunbirds (Monasa morphoeus) and great jacamars (Jacamerops aureus). In most cases, alarms resulted in the tamarins moving down in the forest canopy or moving fast from the periphery of a tree to its trunk, but an (unsuccessful) attack by an ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus) caused the tamarins, exposed when feeding in the forest canopy, to literally fall out of the tree. The Guiana crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) and the slate-colored hawk (Leucopternis schistacea) have been recorded as predators of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back and Spix’s Mustached tamarins at the Quebrada Blanco. After a predator attack, both species remain nervous for several days, and rates of alarm calling are higher than usual; they also spend more time than is typical in the lower levels of the forest canopy. A group of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins was seen to approach and mob (giving a specific trill call) two mating garden tree boas (Corallus hortulanus enydris, Boidae), hanging from a liana; some individuals going as close as 1-5-2 m. Densities range from 1-5 groups/km? or 10-5 ind/km? at Santa Cecilia, Rio Maniti, to 5-6 groups/km* or 33-7 ind/km?* at Jenaro Herrera on the east bank of the Rio Ucayali, to a high of 10 groups/km?® or 60 ind/km? at Paucarillo on the Rio Orosa. Density at the Quebrada Blanco, Rio Tahuayo, in 1984 was 28-3 ind/km? or 4-7 groups/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red Last (as S. fuscicollis nigrifrons). Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin is restricted to the Peruvian Amazon and reported to be common. It occurs in ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo but not in any strictly protected area.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino (1990), Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Bartecki &amp; Heymann (1987, 1990), Castro (1991), Castro &amp; Soini (1977), Fang (1990), Garber (1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1989, 1991, 1992), Garber &amp; Teaford (1986), Glander et al. (1984), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Heymann (1990a, 1990b, 1992a, 1992b, 1995b, 1997, 2001), Heymann &amp; Buchanan-Smith (2000), Heymann et al. (2000), Knogge &amp; Heymann (2003), Lledo-Ferrer et al. (2009), Matauschek et al. (2011), Nickle &amp; Heymann (1996), Norconk (1990), Oversluijs &amp; Heymann (2001), Smith (1997, 2000a, 2000b), Smith, Buchanan-Smith et al. (2003), Smith, Knogge et al. (2007), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini (1990a, 1990b), Soini &amp; Céppula (1981), Soini &amp; de Soini (1986), Soini et al. (1989), Tapia et al. (1990), Tirado, Franke et al. (2003), Tirado, Knogge &amp; Heymann (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC0FFD3FA0FFEF46724E432	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC3FFD2FAD8FB61664DEA65.text	DF668780FFC3FFD2FAD8FB61664DEA65.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus fuscicollis (Spix 1823)	<div><p>31.</p> <p>Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus fuscicollis</p> <p>French: Tamarin de Spix / German: Braunriickentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Spix Other common names: Brown-mantled Tamarin, Hershkovitz's Saddle-back Tamarin, Saddleback Tamarin; Acre Saddle-back Tamarin (acrensis), Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarin (avilapiresi), Cruz Lima's Saddle-back Tamarin (cruzlimai), Gray-fronted Saddle-back Tamarin (mura), Lako's Saddle-back Tamarin (primitivus)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas fuscicollis Spix, 1823,</p> <p>Brazil, near Sao Paulo de Olivenca, between Rio Solimoes and Rio Ica, Amazonas. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to near Sao Paulo de Olivenca but to the south of the Rio Solimoes.</p> <p>In his major synthesis of 1977, P. Hershkovitz placed all the 14 of the saddle-back tamarins he recognized as subspecies of S. fuscicollis. One of them, S. f. acrensis, described by C. Carvalho in 1957, was found to be a hybrid S. f. fuscicollis x S. weddelli melanoleucus. Molecular genetic analysis showed that the form fuscus was more closely related to S. nigricollis than to S. fuscicollis and argued that it should be considered a separate species. Further research on S. fuscus and S. nigricollis is needed to resolve the taxonomy and phylogeny of the Black-mantled and saddle-back tamarins in northern Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. The taxonomy suggested by the molecular genetic analysis of C. Matauschek and coworkers in 2011 is followed here; they considered the former subspecies lagonotus, tripartitus, nigrifrons, and weddelli to be distinct species. The Central Amazonian Brazilian subspecies have yet to receive similar molecular genetic analyses and remain, by default, as subspecies of S. fuscicollis. Five subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. J. fuscicollis Spix, 1823 — W Brazil (states of Acre &amp; Amazonas) and Peru, S of the Rio Solimoes, between the Rio Javari in the W, E through the Rio Jutai Basin to the Rio Jurua (left bank), also in Peru, W of the Rio Yavari as far as the Rio Tapiche, an E tributary of the Rio Ucayali, and extending N from there as far as the Rio Blanco (left bank), where it meets the distribution of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin, S. nigrifrons (right bank of the Rio Blanco). S. f. auvilapiresi Hershkovitz, 1966 — W Brazil in the Amazonas State (type locality is the mouth of the Lago de Tefé, Rio Solimoes), found along the S of the Rio Solimoes between the rios Jurua and Purus, including the basins of the rios Urucu and Coari, and probably the Rio Tefé; the S limits are not known but possibly in the region of the N bank of the Rio Tapaua, an affluent of the Rio Purus. S. f. eruzlimai Hershkovitz, 1966 — W Brazil, described by Hershkovitz without provenance (based on a single individual “said to be from the upper Rio Purus”); M. G. M. van Roosmalen reported in 2003 that it had been observed by T. van Roosmalen on 21 June 2002, on the W bank of the Rio Purus, opposite the mouth of the Rio Sepatini, and noted that Hershkovitz was correct in supposing that it occurred between the rios Pauini and Tapaua, W of the Rio Purus. S. J. mura Rohe et al, 2009 — C Brazil (Amazonas State), interfluvium of the rios Madeira and Purus, S of the Rio Amazonas, probably S to the Rio Igapo-Acu. S. f. primitivus Hershkovitz, 1977 — W Brazil (Amazonas State), the distribution is believed to extend from the left bank of the Rio Pauini, along the left bank of the upper Rio Purus, N to the Rio Tapaua (right bank), as far W the right bank of the Rio Jurua, and the Rio Tarauaca.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body c.21 cm,tail ¢.32 cm; weight mean 333 g (n = 23). Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin is a small, highly variable species noted for its marbled or mottled saddle. The head, arms, legs, and forepart and hindpart of the back are solid or ticked black, brown, or red. The tail is reddish or brownish at the base (at least on the underside), with the remainder being black or agouti. The forehead and crown are blackish or agouti, and the nape and mantle are usually agouti. The face is hairy, with black skin, and ears are large and bare. In the nominate form fuscicollis, the crown, forehead, and temples are dominantly orange-agouti. Cheeks are black, and the mantle is a dark agouti to blackish brown, extending only to a little beyond the shoulders. Facialskin is black, with the short grayish-white hairs surrounding the mouth and nostrils. Sides of the face are blackish, giving the appearance of a black mask across the eyes. Arms are the same color as the mantle. The middle and lower back is marbled black, with buffy or orange hairs. The rump and thighs are reddish, and upper surfaces of hands and feet are black. The throat, neck, and chest are dark or reddish brown, mixed with black hairs. The tail is black, except a short basal part is rufous. External genitalia are mostly or entirely pigmented black. “Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. f. avilapiresi) is the most somber and uniformly colored of the subspecies. Its body is predominantly a dark brown throughout, and the forehead, crown, mantle, and upper arms are blackish brown and finely ticked with orange hairs. The rump and thighs are blackish brown, like the mantle—a key distinguishing feature. Lower arms are blacker. Facial skin is black. Hairs around the mouth are pale gray, a little longer than is usual for fuscicollis, and form a triangular patch on each side of the muzzle with the apex beneath the eyes. The saddle on the middle of the back is blackish brown, with the fringe on the sides of the back a little buffier in color. Lower legs and inner sides of legs are darker than the thighs. Upper surface of hands and feet are black. The throat, neck, chest, and belly are brown and finely ticked with orange. The tail is black, except for the base which is brown like the rump. External genitalia are pigmented black. Diagnostic features for “Cruz Lima’s Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. f. cruzlimai) include the reddish orange of the crown, mantle, arms, and legs. The forehead has a well-defined whitish transverse band (chevron). It is distinguished from the two subspecies of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. weddelli weddelli and S. w. crandalli) by the reddish-orange forequarters and outer thighs. Facial skin is black, and, as in all Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin, there are grayish white hairs around the mouth and nostrils. Hands and feet are pale gray. The tail is blackish. In the “Gray-fronted Saddleback Tamarin” (S. f. mura), the forehead is mostly dark brown but with sparse grayish hairs. It lacks the white chevron above the eyebrows. The saddle is strongly mottled ocherous with dark brown to black, beginning on the scapular region and extending to the dorsal base of tail. Arms are black and ticked with reddish brown on the lateral surfaces. In some individuals, there are white hairs in small numbers forming a faint line on each side of the lowest part of the gular region where it meets the upper chest. In “Lako’s Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. f. primitivus), the crown, mantle, arms, legs, rump, and chest are agouti-colored. There is a well-defined grayish transverse band along the forehead, separated from the crown by a narrow blackish line. The saddle is weakly defined from the mantle, with hairs there having 1-3 reddish bands. The chin is gray, and the throat and neck are predominantly blackish. Upper surface of hands and feet are a dark agouti. The tail is agouti-colored at the base and blackish distally.</p> <p>Habitat. P. Soini studied some aspects of the ecology and demography of the nominate form fuscicollis along the right bank of the Rio Tapiche, Peru, and Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarin has been studied in the wild on the Rio Urucu, Brazil, by C. A. Peres. Some observations of Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarin were also made by A. Johns on the west bank of Rio Tefé, Brazil, nearits type locality. Avila-Pires’s Saddleback Tamarin occurs in inundated forest (igapo) and palm swamps, creekside forest, windfall areas, and dense vegetation in tall terra firma forest. At Tefe, Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarin was scarce, occurring in small groups of 2-3 individuals and only in the mosaic of secondary growth and cultivation. The sympatric Mustached Tamarin (8. mystax), in contrast, was common, occurring in groups of up to 15 individuals in tall primary forest and logged forest as well as a forested island, besides the cultivated mosaic. Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins spend most of their time in the understory of the forest up to 10 m above the ground, although they will go up to the canopyto feed at 30-40 m. Structural differences in the understory where they forage for animal prey probably explain their absence in forest types occupied by Mustached Tamarins, which are typically foliage-gleaning predators in lower and middle canopies above them.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins include animal prey; ripe fruits (mainly small, soft, and yellow or red mesocarps and whole berries) of trees,lianas, and epiphytes; nectar and exudates such as gums (from tree-trunks, woody lianas, and seed pods ofthe tall leguminous emergents Parkia nitidaand P. pendula, Fabaceae); and on very rare occasions unripe seeds and fungi. During one year, Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins fed on 180 plant species in 43 plant families (especially Moraceae, Fabaceae, Guttiferae, Linaceae and Sapotaceae)—an extremely diverse diet. Depending on the season, as many as 46 plant species were used (mid-late wet season) or as few as 18 (late dry season) during each month. Each day, they exploited as few as five species of food trees during the peak dry season but as many as 24 species in times of fruit abundance in the wet season. Gums and nectar from the red flowers of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) were particularly important during the dry season when fruit was scarce. Overall, gums from Parkia seed pods were the single most food item, accounting for c.10% of annual feeding time. Readily available gums from oozing bark of Vochysia guianensis (Vochysiaceae) and the palm Jessenia bataua (Arecaceae) were also eaten. Mixed groups of Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Mustached Tamarin (subspecies pileatus) travel together throughout the day and coordinate their use of food patches. They differ in their animal-prey foraging methods. Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins forage mainly in closed substrates, investigating the natural shelters of cryptic prey, plucking them from under bark, from crevices in woody lianas,trees, tangles of vines or epiphytes, and from rosettes of bromeliads and suspended leaflitter. They are manipulative foragers, seeking concealed food items. About one-half of the prey items is caught this way, but a large number are also obtained from those displaced from the mid-story foliage by Mustached Tamarins foraging above; Peres estimated that 66-73% of their prey biomass was obtained from flushed items. This fosters the association of saddle-back tamarins with Mustached Tamarins. In general, saddle-back tamarins rarely locate and capture mobile prey exposed on leaf surfaces, which is typical for Mustached Tamarins. Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins concentrate on larger prey than do Mustached Tamarins. Items are mainly arthropods but also occasionally small vertebrates such as Anolis lizards. Insects eaten are mainly orthopterans, including katydids (Tettigoniidae), praying mantis (Mantidae), and short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae). They also eat stick insects (Phasmidae), cockroaches (Blattidae), spiders, scale insects, scorpions, cuckoo-spit aphids (Aphrophoridae, Hemiptera), and larva of social insects, including ants, termites, and even wasps.</p> <p>Breeding. During the year-long study at Urucu, births of Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Mustached Tamarins were not synchronized. The larger Mustached Tamarin has a longer gestation and takes longer to wean its infants. In 14 sets of twins recorded for both species, ten litters were born in late June to early October (early dry season) and four litters in December—January (early wet season), demonstrating that, at least in some groups, births may occur twice a year.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins were active for about nine hours each day. They started their day at sunrise and returned to their sleeping sites in the late afternoon at 16:00-17:00 h. One-third of their time was spent moving, and onefifth was spent resting. Foraging for, manipulating, and eating animal prey occupied 43% of their day. The remainder of their time was spent eating fruits and plant exudates, engaging in social activities such as allogrooming, resting, in territorial activities, mobbing prey, and alarm calling. Mustached Tamarins and saddle-back tamarins that travel together through much of the day split company when they retire to their sleeping sites, usually between 15 m and 120 m apart. Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins almost always used tree holes as sleeping sites, whereas Mustached Tamarins slept mostly in clumps of dense vegetation, such as large liana festoons and vine tangles.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins form stable groups of 5-8 individuals, always associated with somewhat larger groups of 8-11 Mustached Tamarins during the day. Distances traveled during the day vary from 1150 m to 2700 m, with an average of 1991 m. At Urucu, home ranges of 145 ha were the largest recorded for the genus. Density at Urucu was very low as a result at 1-8 groups/km? or 6-8 ind/km?* and below the lowest values reported for any site where mixed-species groups of tamarins have been studied. Density of Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins was 8-9 ind/km® (mean group size of five) at Igarapé Acu, downstream on the left bank of the Rio Urucu, and 10 ind/km?* (mean group size of four) at another site on the right bank of the Rio Tefé. These low densities have been attributed to a lack of heterogeneity of successional and climax forest, along with nutrient-poorsoils, strong seasonality in ripe fruit production, lack of successional forest, and a weak staggering of fruiting peaks among different habitats. Densities of the nominate subspecies fuscicollis at threesites varied from 14 ind/km* (mean group size of 3-7) to 27 ind/km? (mean group size of 5-6). At the Urucu site, one mixedspecies group of Avila-Pires’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Mustached Tamarins suffered attacks from raptors about once every nine days. Unsuccessful attacks included those by ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus). Nine other raptors that occur in the forest there are known or potential predators of these small primates: harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), Guiana crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis), black-and-white hawk eagle (Spizastur melanoleucus), and four species of hawks and buzzards (Leucopternis, Buteo, and Buteogallus).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The subspecies primitivus is classified as Data Deficient, and the subspecies mura has not yet been assessed. Serra do Divisor National and Jutai-Solimoes Ecological Station are within the distribution of the nominate subspecies fuscicollis. Lago Ayapua State Environment Protection Area and Abufari Biological Reserve on the left bank of the Rio Purus are within the distribution of avilapires:.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Cheverud (1995), Cheverud &amp; Moore (1990), Cheverud et al. (1993), Cropp et al. (1999), Epple &amp; Katz (1980, 1984), Haugaasen &amp; Peres (2005a), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Hodun et al. (1981), Johns (198ba, 1986¢, 1991), Matauschek et al. (2011), Peres (1991a, 1992a, 1992b, 1993b, 1993c, 1993d, 1996b, 2000a, 2000b), Peres et al. (1996), Réhe et al. (2009), Snowdon &amp; de Soini (1988), Soini (1990a, 1990b), Soini &amp; Céppula (1981), Soini &amp; Soini (1983, 1986).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC3FFD2FAD8FB61664DEA65	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC2FFDCFA09F5B46729E819.text	DF668780FFC2FFDCFA09F5B46729E819.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus weddelli (Deville 1849)	<div><p>32.</p> <p>Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus weddelli</p> <p>French: Tamarin de Weddell / German: Schwarzmanteltamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Weddell Other common names: Crandall's Saddle-back Tamarin (crandalli), White-mantled/White Saddle-back Tamarin (melanoleucus)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas weddelli Deville, 1849,</p> <p>Bolivia, province of Apolobamba (= Caupolican), La Paz, Bolivia.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. fuscicollis. A recent molecular genetic analysis placed it in a distinct clade with the forms fuscicollis, nigrifrons, and melanoleucus, along with leucogenys specimens sampled south of the Rio Pachitea. The form melanoleucus, also formerly a subspecies of S. fuscicollis, was considered a distinct species in the 1990s, with crandalli, a pale form of unknown provenance, as a subspecies. Molecular genetic analyses have found that differences between melanoleucus and weddelli were no larger than among the weddelli specimens, but because ofits distinctive pelage (white) and defined geographic distribution, melanoleucus is maintained as a subspecies of S. weddelli. The “Acre Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. fuscicollis acrensis) from the upper Rio Jurua is a hybrid S. fuscicollis x S. w. melanoleucus. “Crandall’s Saddle-back Tamarin” (c¢randalli) is known only from a single specimen and is listed here as a subspecies of S. weddelli, but it may be a hybrid. Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. w. weddelli Deville, 1849 — W Brazil (between the rios Purus and Madeira in the states of Amazonas, Acre, and NW Rondonia, as far N as the Rio Pixuna) to SE Peru (from the Rio Abujao, E tributary of the Rio Ucayali, to the S along both banks of the Rio Ucayali, E of the Andes, E of the Rio Apurimac, and along the upper reaches of the Apurimac, Inambari, Urubamba, and Tambopata), and to N Bolivia (rios Madeira and Beni or Mamoré); it crosses the upper Rio Madeira to its right bank in Rondonia in the region of the Rio Jamari,S of the Rio Ji-parana, being sympatric there with Rondon’s Marmoset (Mico rondonz). S. w. crandalli Hershkovitz, 1966 — provenance unknown but possibly near the headwaters of the rios Jurua and Tarauaca in W Brazil. S. w. melanoleucus Miranda Ribeiro, 1912 — Brazilian Amazon, along the right bank of the upper Rio Jurua, S from the mouth of the Rio Eira, up to its headwaters, E to the left bank of the Rio Tarauaca (no saddle-back tamarins have been recorded to the E of the Rio Tarauaca in Acre State as far as the upper Rio Purus), in SE Peru from the upper reaches of the Rio Breu and the Quebrada Breu, right bank affluents of the upper Rio Yurua.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 18-27 cm, tail 25-38 cm; weight 340-440 g. In the nominate form weddelli, the crown, sides of head, throat, neck, chest, upper surfaces of hands and feet, mantle, and arms are black or blackish brown. The mantle often has sparse orange ticking. The forehead has a distinctive white transverse band (chevron). Facial skin is pigmented black, and there are short gray hairs around the mouth and nostrils. The saddle is vermiculated or marbled black, with ocherous buff or gray tones. The rump and thighs are reddish orange. Innersides of forearms are black, variably mixed with orange or reddish. Inner sides of upper arms are black to dominantly reddish. The belly is reddish orange. The tail is black, except for a short rufous basal part. External genitalia are mostly or entirely pigmented. The “White-mantled Saddleback Tamarin” (S. w. melanoleucus) is almost entirely creamy white (often washed or streaked with yellowish buffy hairs), contrasting the black of the ears, facial skin, and external genitalia. Underparts and inner surface of limbs are whitish or yellowish to ocherous. The forehead has a poorly defined white band, and hairs surrounding the mouth and nostrils are grayish. In the “Crandall’s Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. w. crandally), the crown, mantle, and arms are yellowish drab. The rump, legs and thighs are orange, and the tail is brown with orange underneath on the proximal one-fifth. There is a broad, well-defined, white, transverse band across the forehead (chevron). The throat, neck, and chest are buffy to nearly white. Facial skin is pigmented. There are short gray hairs around the mouth and sides of the nostrils. The saddle is vermiculated buffy and black. Upper surfaces of hands are drab, and those of the feet are mixed buffy and orange, with dark bases of the hairs showing through. External genitalia are pigmented black.</p> <p>Habitat. In Bolivia, the nominate form weddelli can be found in tall forest with sparse understories (“monte alto”), tall forest without a closed canopy and dense understories (“monte bajo”), secondary forests with a canopy heights of 10-20 m (“barbecho claro”), and dense secondary forests without a closed canopy (“barbecho tupido”). It shows a preference for secondary forest; in one study in Bolivia, ¢.70% of their day was spent in such forest. In Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, home ranges always contain a mosaic of forest types and always with successional forest patches from windfalls or new growth from changes in river courses. They do not occur in large tracts of mature forest with sparse understories. A comparative study of habitat use by Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin showed that they tended to use small (less than 5 cm in diameter), medium, and large branches (more than 10 cm in diameter) in roughly equal proportions, whereas “mustached tamarins” (Red-bellied Tamarin, S. labiatus, and Emperor Tamarin, S. imperator) used small supports more and larger supports less. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins used horizontal supports much less and vertical supports much more, and spent much more time on tree trunks and less time on branches than Red-bellied and the Emperor tamarins. When jumping, they went from branch to branch much less and from a branch to a trunk, or between trunks, more than the two species of mustached tamarins, which mostly jumped from branch to branch. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins foraged for animal prey at an average height above the ground of 6-1 m and forfruits at 11-2 m. In contrast, the two species of mustached tamarins foraged for insects at an average of 9-4 m above the ground and for fruits at 16-7 m. These measurements clearly define structural and vertical differences in forest habitats occupied by these species and differences in foraging techniques and sites, resulting in clear differences in their animal prey. Demographic and ecological studies of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin living in mixed groups with the Emperor Tamarin were carried out by J. Terborgh and A. Goldizen for more than 13 years at Cocha Cashu in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru. J. Crandlemire-Sacco did a 15-month comparative study of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins with titi monkeys (Callicebus) in the Tambopata National Reserve on the Rio Madre de Dios in southern Peru. Other studies have focused on ecology, behavior, and polyspecific associations of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin with Red-bellied Tamarin and Goeldi’s Monkey (Callimico goeldii) in the Pando region in north-western Bolivia. They began with a five-month study and survey by A. and G. Pook in 1978-1979 and were followed by M. Yoneda who carried out a six-month study in 1979, H. Buchanan-Smith who carried out field studies and surveys at a number of sites during five months in 1987 and again in 1997, and S. Hardie who studied them during six monthsat two sites in 1991. L. Porter has been studying polyspecific groups of tamarins and Goeldi’s Monkey at a site just north of the Rio Tahuamanu in the Pando region since 1998. In Brazil, M. A. Lopes and S. F. Ferrari carried out a nine-month field study of sympatric Rondon’s Marmosets and Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins at the Samuel Ecological Station on the Rio Jamari, Rondonia State,].-C. Bicca-Marques studied cognitive aspects of foraging in mixed-species groups of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Emperor Tamarins at the 100-ha Zoobotanical Park of the Federal University of Acre in 1997-1998, and J. Rehg studied mixed-species groups with Emperor Tamarins and Goeldi’s Monkeys near Rio Branco, Acre State, in 1999-2003.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. At Manu, the nominate subspecies weddelli forms mixed-species groups with the “Bearded Emperor Tamarin” (S. imperator subgrisescens), where they have c¢.43% overlap in the fruits they eat. A large number of fruiting trees are exploited at any one time, but only a few are visited on any one day. Likewise, fruits from a large number of species are included in the diet over the year, but only six or seven constitute key resources, providing the large majority of the tamarins’ carbohydrate requirements. Exploited fruit crops typically ripen in a piecemeal fashion over long of periods of time. The vine Celtis iguanaea (Ulmaceae), for example, is an important source of fruits (drupes) for tamarins in April-July. Fruits are not eaten by larger primates such as capuchins (Cebus and Sapajus) or squirrel monkeys (Saimiri). Celtis fruits, nectar from flowers of the vine Combretum assimile (Combretaceae), and nectar and berries of Quararibea cordata trees (Bombacaceae) are key food sources for both species of tamarins during the dry season. These food sources are too spread out in the forest and provide quantities of food that are too small for any systematic exploitation by other primate species. Even so, the two species of tamarins lost weight at this time of relative fruit scarcity. In the case of Combretum, systematic visitation to their inflorescences implies that tamarins are important pollinators. The main difference in the diets of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Emperor Tamarins is in their methods and localities for searching for animal prey. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins dedicated 62% of their foraging time to investigating knotholes and crevicesin trees, vines, and palms for hidden prey, 22% looking along branches, and 8% looking among leaves. In contrast, Emperor Tamarins were scanning foliage-gleaners (86% of their foraging time) and used a stealth-and-pounce capture method for exposed but often cryptic prey; less than 1% of their foraging was spent investigating crevices. Emperor Tamarins spent more than 50% of their time foraging among vines, whereas Weddell’s Saddleback Tamarins searched mostly lower down on tree trunks (68%). The two species exploited different animal prey. The nominate form of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin caught more large insects (e.g. grasshoppers, Orthoptera) than Emperor Tamarins, which, while also showing a definite preference for grasshoppers, consumed many more butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), especially their larvae and pupae. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin also eats more vertebrate prey, mostly lizards that they seize from tree trunks. In the Pando region of northern Bolivia,it also forms mixed groups with the nominate form of the Red-bellied Tamarin (S. labiatus labiatus). There, they feed on gums, fruits, and nectar from 33 plant species. Fruits of Pourouma and Cecropia sciadophylla (both Urticaceae) and the nectar of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) were particularly important. Differences between the two tamarins in their animal foraging method, and the prey taken, were similar to those found in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve where Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins associated with the Emperor Tamarin. In the Pando region of northern Bolivia, Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins form associations not only with the Red-bellied Tamarin (subspecies labiatus) but also on many occasions with Goeldi’s Monkeys. Groups of nine weddelli, five labiatus, and eight Goeldi’s Monkeys shared a home range of 30-35 ha during three months. The association, usually established in the early mornings by long calling of the groups, was most evident when they rested; weddelli and labiatus spent an average of ¢.50% of their day together, and sometimes they were together for the entire day. Goeldi’s Monkey associated with one or both of the tamarins for ¢.50% of its time, but it was more frequently observed with weddelli than labiatus. When traveling, Redbellied Tamarins tended to lead and were followed by the saddle-backs and then the Goeldi’s Monkeys. Red-bellied Tamarins moved higher up in the forest (77% of their traveling and foraging above 10 m from the ground) and traveled more quickly, using mainly quadrupedal running and jumping. Goeldi’s Monkeys often lagged behind by as much as ten minutes, using their predominantly vertical-clinging and leaping locomotion in the lowest part of the understory below 5 m above the ground. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins moved and foraged above them, usually below 10 m above the ground, using a mix of vertical-clinging and leaping and quadrupedal running and jumping. The mustached tamarins also tended to be the first to begin activity after a resting period. As was found in Manu, the larger mustached tamarins were dominant to the smaller saddle-backs when the two interacted socially or had a dispute (rarely) over a food item.</p> <p>Breeding. At Manu, 22 births of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins in eleven groups occurred in the late dry season and rainy season from late August to March. Their breeding strategy was either monogamous (just one breeding pair) or polyandrous (more than one male mates with the breeding female and cares for the young). Usually, as is typical of callitrichids, there is only one breeding female in a group, but breeding by secondary females does occur. When this happens, secondary females give birth at least three months before or three months after the primary breeding female (always the older of the two), avoiding competition for infant carriers. There is evidently some competition between adult females for breeding positions. In eight of ten years of data from Manu, the number of mature females that did not breed exceeded the number of breeding females. There are some interesting differences between the sexes in terms of their reproductive strategies. Females that manage to obtain breeding positions usually do so when they are 2-5 years old, typically either in their natal group (taking over from their mother) or in a neighboring group. Territorial encounters between groups enable adult females to assess their chances of establishing themselves in neighboring groups. In some cases, however, females left their group and established a new one with emigrating males. Many females disappear when they are 2-5-4-5 years old because they leave the group to look for breeding positions and many die as a result. Joining neighboring groups is the main dispersal strategy of the females. From observations of groups in eleven territories during 13 years of study, only two females entered groups that were not their neighbors, and only one female entered a group that was not a former member of any of the groups that were studied. Average tenure of the breeding female in a group was 3-3-5 years. Groups contained more than one adult male far more often than two adult females. Copulations were recorded in seven groups, and in six of them, two males mated with the same female (i.e. polyandrous). The polyandrous males were sometimes related to each other, sometimes not. The high frequency of polyandry indicated that males may be more successful than females in leaving their groups to search for breeding opportunities. While only one female immigrated into the study population over the 13-year study, at least nine males did so. The need for help in the care of infants seems to favor this polyandrous system. Offspring of the breeding pair help in carrying their younger brothers and sisters, and when there are no older offspring in the group to provide this help, both males and females benefit from the aid of a second male. Another sex difference noted was in terms of secondary emigration. No females transferred from one group to another more than once, but males did, although infrequently (only four known cases during the 13-year study). This may be due to males forming polyandrous groups when there are no offspring to help with infant rearing, but when the group grows and the surplus male’s help is no longer beneficial, the dominant male may expell the other male. In each case when a male transferred groups for a second time,it had belonged to a one female—two male group that had bred successfully, and the male subsequently moved into another smaller group.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Groups of the nominate subspecies weddelli spend c.20% of the day traveling, c.44% resting, and 32% feeding and foraging. More timeis spent resting and less time traveling when the dominant female is pregnant or when young infants were being carried by the group members. At the beginning of the day, they tend to feed on ripe fruits first and then switch to animal prey. Resting sessions occur throughout the day but are predominant at 11:00-13:00 h. They feed again at a fruiting tree in the late afternoon before retiring to their sleeping tree, normally at 16:00-17:00 h.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins live in stable extended families, and many mature offspring tend to remain in their natal group. In Bolivia, group size is 2-9 individuals (average 4-5), and home ranges are 30-33 ha. In south-eastern Peru, 28 groups had 2-15 individuals, with an average of six. During their daily activities, Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins (subspecies weddell) travel up to 1300 m. Surveys in the Pando region in far north-western Bolivia found it to be the most common primate species, with 33 groups counted being as large as eleven individuals and averaging seven individuals. Groups use the center of their home range more than the periphery. At Manu, groups of the subspecies weddell: form a close association with the Bearded Emperor Tamarin, occupying overlapping territories that they defend jointly against neighboring groups. Combined group sizes ranged from five (three Bearded Emperor Tamarins and two weddelli) to 16 (eight of each). These mixed groups are long-lasting; one was observed for more than three years. Both species participate in coordinating their association with the other. They do not usually intermingle but travel separately along parallel paths (weddelli lower in the forest and more spread out and the Emperor Tamarins above them), and they rest and forage separately. Often they are out of sight of each other but maintain contact by their long-calls. When individuals of the two groups meet in a fruiting tree, for example, Emperor Tamarins are dominant over the smaller weddelli. Mixed groups observed at Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve occupied stable home ranges of 30 ha to more than 100 ha, which they defended against neighboring groups. The ecology and behavior of the mixed groups of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins (subspecies weddellr) and Red-bellied Tamarin (subspecies labiatus) in Bolivia are very similar. Associations with groups of Rondon’s Marmosets are not as strong as they are with the species of mustached tamarins. The tamarins occupied a home range of c.44 ha and were with the marmosets for some time every day. Both species exploited the gum of the seed pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae), and the tamarins eat gum from the holes gouged by the marmosets. In south-eastern Peru, densities in ten localities ranged from 0-9 groups/km?* (5-1 ind/km?) to 5 groups/km?* (30-3 ind/km?*). At Manu, the bicolored hawk (Accipiter bicolor) preys on young Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins. Density estimates of weddelli have been obtained for a number of localities. A density of c.16 ind/km? was estimated for Manu, while in south-eastern Peru between the rios Acre and Tahuamanu, densities were 0-76-3-6 groups/km? or 4-6-22 ind/km?. Subsequent surveys in that region provided higher densities of 2:2-9-4 groups/km?® or 13-5-56-2 ind/km?, averaging 3-8 groups or 22-6 ind/km?. Densities of 16-9-20-8 ind/ km? and 5-5 groups/km?, or 33 ind/km?, were estimated for the Pando region, Bolivia. The only estimate obtained to date in Brazil was at Sao Domingos on the upper Rio Jurua in Acre State where mean group size was 6-4 and the density was 43 ind/km? or 6-7 groups/km?®. Densities of 40-50 ind/km? or 6-9 groups/km? are probably close to the upper limits for Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins anywhere.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as S. fuscicollis weddellz). In 1986, A. D. Brown and D. I. Rumiz reported that Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin was common in Bolivia. It is the most common of the callitrichids in a large area of the Pando region between the rios Acre and Madre de Dios. The following protected areas are within its geographical distribution: Madidi National Park, Pilon Lajas National Park, and Manuripi National Reserve in Bolivia; Abutfari Biological Reserve, Rio Acre Ecological Station, Cunia State Environmental Protection Area, Samuel State Ecological Station, Serra dos Trés Irmaos State Park, Guajara-Mirim State Park, and Pimenta Bueno Municipal Park in Brazil; and Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, and Tambopata National Reserve in Peru.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacién (1994b), Bicca-Marques (1999, 2000, 2005), Bicca-Marques &amp; Garber (2003, 2004, 2005), Bicca-Marques et al. (1997), Buchanan-Smith (1990, 1991b, 1999), Buchanan-Smith &amp; Hardie (1997), Buchanan-Smith et al. (2000), Calegaro-Marques et al. (1995), Castro et al. (1990), Coimbra-Filho (1990), Crandlemire-Sacco (1988), Encarnacion &amp; Castro (1990), Ferrari &amp; Martins (1992), Ferrari, Iwanaga &amp; da Silva (1996), Ferrari, Lopes et al. (1995), Ferrari, Sena et al. (2010), Goldizen (1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1989), Goldizen &amp; Terborgh (1986, 1989), Goldizen, Mendelson et al. (1996), Goldizen, Terborgh et al. (1988), Hardie (1995, 1998), Hardie &amp; Buchanan-Smith (1997, 2000), Heltne et al. (1976), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Heymann &amp; Buchanan-Smith (2000), Izawa &amp; Bejarano (1981), Izawa &amp; Yoneda (1981), Janson &amp; Terborgh (19853, 1985b), Janson et al. (1981, 1985), Lopes &amp; Ferrari (1994), Matauschek et al. (2011), Mena et al. (2007), Peres (1991a, 1993d), Peres et al. (1996), Pook &amp; Pook (1982), Rehg (2006a, 2006b, 2009, 2010), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Tagliaro et al. (2005), Terborgh (1983), Terborgh &amp; Goldizen (1985), Terborgh &amp; Stern (1987), Valverde et al. (1990), Wallace et al. (2010), Yoneda (1981, 1984a, 1984b).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC2FFDCFA09F5B46729E819	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC9FFD8FFC7FEE8696EE64F.text	DF668780FFC9FFD8FFC7FEE8696EE64F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus mystax (Spix 1823)	<div><p>33.</p> <p>Mustached Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus mystax</p> <p>French: Tamarin 8 moustaches / German: Schnurrbarttamarin / Spanish: Tamarin bigotudo Other common names: Moustached Tamarin; Red-capped/Red-cap Mustached Tamarin (pileatus), Spix's Mustached Tamarin (mystax), White-rump Mustached Tamarin (pluto)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas mystax Spix, 1823,</p> <p>between Rio Solimoes and Rio Ica, Amazonas, Brazil. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to Sao Paulo de Olivenca.</p> <p>C. P. Groves in his book Primate Taxonomy published in 2001 found that, while the subspecies mystax and pluto are very similar to each other, the form pileatus is quite distinct, and he listed it as a separate species. Nevertheless, current evidence indicates that distributions of mystax and pluto are separated by pileatus, and as such, pileatus is not recognized as a separate species here. Reports in the 1980s of S. mystax occurring in northern Bolivia have not been confirmed. Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. m. mystax Spix, 1823 — S of the Amazon River in WBrazil (W of the Rio Jurua) and NE Peru, as far W as the E banks of the middle and lower Rio Tapiche and the lower Rio Ucayali, further S it extends W as far as the Rio Ucayali, crossing the Rio Tapiche at c.6° 40’ S, the S limit is marked by the rios Urubamba and Inuya. S. m. pileatus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire &amp; Deville, 1848 — Brazilian Amazon, W of the Rio Purus, S at least as far as the Rio Pauini or Rio Mamornia. S. m. pluto Lonnberg, 1926 — Brazilian Amazon, from the W (left) bank of the Rio Purus, N of the Rio Tapaua, as far W as the Rio Coart.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 24-2 cm (males, n = 75) and 24-6 cm (females, n = 60), tail 38-2 cm (males, n = 72) and 38-7 cm (females, n = 57); weight 380-630 g (males from three sites, n = 161) and 360-650 g (females from three sites, n = 104) (single measurements are means from the nominate subspecies mystax, “Spix’s Mustached Tamarin”). Female Mustached Tamarins are a little larger than males. At the Rio Blanco, Peru, mean weight of 16 adult males was 564-5 g, with a range of 502-681 g. In Spix’s Mustached Tamarin, the skin around the mouth and nostrils is unpigmented pink and covered with white hairs, giving the characteristic mustached appearance. The mustache is distinctly larger than that of the Red-bellied Tamarin (S. labiatus). Hairs on the middle of the chin are black. All three subspecies of Mustached Tamarin have long hairs on the mantle, shoulders, and upper arms that are brown or blackish, usually with a very fine silvery or buffy ticking, but not defined from the middle back. In Spix’s Mustached Tamarin, the crown and tail are black. The mantle is blackishbrown lightly ticked with orange. Arms, legs, hands, and feet are black. Hairs of the back, rump, and outersides of the thighs are blackish with orange ticking. The throat, chest, belly, and inner sides of limbs are blackish brown. The tail is black except at the base, which is ticked with orange like the rump. The tip of the tail is sometimes gray. External genitalia are unpigmented and covered with white hairs. Spix’s Mustached Tamarin can be distinguished from the other two subspecies by the dominantly blackish or dark brown color of the head, trunk, and extremities. The “Red-capped Mustached Tamarin” (S. m. pileatus) is distinguished from the other subspecies byits rustyred crown that extends forward onto the forehead in a thin line between the eyes. The rest of the face is black except for the typical white moustache. The skin around the mouth and nostrils is pink and unpigmented. The mantle is blackish brown, with fine buffy or orange ticking, with the paler base of the hairs showing through. The middle and lower back and rump have mixed blackish brown and buffy hairs. Outer sides of arms and legs are brown, becoming blacker on the hands and feet. The entire ventral surface and innersides of limbs are blackish brown. The tail is black. External genitalia are mostly or entirely unpigmented and covered with white hairs. The “White-rump Mustached Tamarin” (S. m. pluto) is similar to Spix’s Mustached Tamarin, except for the depigmentation of the anogenital and inguinal region and base of the ventral surface of the tail, which are covered with white hairs, hence its common name. The rest of the tail and the crown of the head are black. The area around the mouth and nostrils is unpigmented and covered in white hairs and whiskers, forming the moustache and extending out from the cheeks but with a small black patch on the middle of the chin. The mantle is black and ticked with buff (bases of the hairs are drab, sometimes whitish). Arms and upper surfaces of hands and feet are black. The lower back and outer sides of thighs are like the mantle but with more buff showing through. The throat, chest, and underparts are blackish brown.</p> <p>Habitat. Tall and secondary lowland rainforest, preferring dense vegetation in secondary forest, tree falls, and edge habitat. Mustached Tamarins only marginally occupy seasonally flooded and inundated forests, possibly because they are more dependent on a continuous supply of fruit than sympatric species of saddle-back tamarins. Fruiting is more seasonal in the inundated forests than on the terra firma or alluvial plain forests, which often lack fruit during the dry season. The saddle-back tamarins are smaller and can resort more easily to gums and nectar during times of fruit scarcity. The Mustached Tamarin rarely forages along tree trunks (a typical foraging site for saddle-backs) and spends less time foraging in the understory where the saddle-backs are most active. Mustached Tamarins prefer the upper layers of the forest canopy. Spix’s Mustached Tamarin (subspecies mystax) is sympatric with Geoffroy’s Saddleback Tamarin (S. nigrifrons) and Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. fuscicollis fuscicollis). The Red-capped Mustached Tamarin (subspecies pileatus) and the White-rump Mustached Tamarin (subspecies pluto) are sympatric with Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. J. avilapiresi) throughout their known distributions. The natural history of mustached tamarin is now quite well known. Spix’s Mustached Tamarin has been studied at sites in the Peruvian Amazon: on the left bank of the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the Rio Tahuayo (in turn a tributary of the Rio Amazonas, a little upstream from Iquitos) at Estacion Biologica Quebrada Blanco 1 (M. Ramirez, M. Norconk, and P. Garber) and on the right bank of the Rio Blanco at Estacion Biologica Quebrada Blanco 2 (R. Castro, T. Fang, E. Heymann, P. Lottker, M. Huck, A. Smith, and others). P. Soini and M. de Soini studied demographics of wild populations at sites in forests along the rios Maniti, Tahuayo, and Tapiche in north-eastern Peru. Behavioral, ecological, and demographic studies have also been done on Padre Isla, a seasonally flooded island in the Rio Amazonas near Iquitos, Peru (L. Moya, C. Gazzo, P. Garber, and E. Heymann). Formerly devoid of primates, Spix’s Mustached Tamarin was introduced there by the Proyecto Peruano de Primatologia from 1977 to 1980: eleven individuals in 1977, 17 individuals in 1978, and 65 individuals in 1980. Mixed-species groups of Red-capped Mustached Tamarins and Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins were studied at a site along the Rio Urucu by C. Peres.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Spix’s Mustached Tamarin at Quebrada Blanco feed on a wide range of fruits (c.90 species), plant exudates (nectar and gum), and invertebrates, including insects, especially Orthoptera, along with small frogs and lizards. During a seven-month period (June-December; late wet season and early wet season punctuated by a month of dry season in August) at the Rio Blanco, the diet of a group of Spix’s Mustached Tamarin was 42-3% fruits, 40-4% insects, 9:3% legumes, 5-6% nectar, and 2:2% gums. The percentage of feeding time devoted to fruits ranged from 37-6% in the dry season to 48:6% in the wet season. Nectar is an important component of the diet in the dry season when fruits are scarce. During dry season months (July=August) at Quebrada Blanco, mixed groups of Spix’s Mustached Tamarin and Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin devote 22-31% of their feeding time to nectar from the red flowers of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) trees. A 14-month study of gum feeding at Quebrada Blanco showed that Spix’s Mustached Tamarins exploited fewer species (seven) than Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins (17 species), but Parkia nitida and P. igneiflora (Fabaceae) were extremely important to both during the dry season. During a full year, the diet of a group of Mustached Tamarins introduced to Padre Isla was 43-7% fruit, 34-9% animal prey, and 19-6% gums. The main families providing fruits were Fabaceae (especially Inga) and also Moraceae. Stryphnodendron (Fabaceae) was an important source of gum. At the Urucu site, a mixed-species group of Redcapped Mustached Tamarin and Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin ate ripe fruits form 155 species of plants. During 13 months, the diet of the Red-capped Mustached Tamarin was 70-6% fruits, 12:4% animal prey, 10-4% gums (mostly Parkia nitida and P. pendula), 6-2% nectar, and 0-1% unripe seeds and mushrooms. Although fruits dominate the plant part of diet most of the year at Urucu, nectar (especially of Symphonia globulifera) and gums were important during the late wet and early dry seasons in July-September. During the year, the most important genera and species providing fruits included Ficus (FE trigona, F. mathewsu, F. guianensis), Pseudolmedia laevis (Moraceae), Inga (Fabaceae), Souroubea guianensis (Marcgraviaceae), Pourouma formicrum (Urticaceae), Hebepetalum humiriafolium (Linaceae), Leonia glycycarpa (Violaceae), and Minquartia guianensis (Olacaceae). Mustached Tamarins disperse seeds from a large number of lianas and trees. Some of the seeds they swallow are large, up to 2-5 cm in length. They are rapidly passed through the digestive tract (one to five hours, but usually less than three hours) and many of them are excreted more than 200 m from the parent tree. Heavier seeds are excreted more rapidly than lighter seeds. Mustached Tamarins have also been seen, on very rare occasions, eating soil (geophagy). The reasons for this are not known, but it may be an important mineral supplement, perhaps for certain trace elements. Large orthopterans (katydids, Tettigoniidae) are preferred prey, but they also eatstick insects (Phasmatodea), praying mantises (Mantodea), lepidopteran eggs, cuckoo-spit aphids (Hemiptera), weevils, spiders, spider eggs, and scorpions. Foraging techniques of Mustached Tamarins and places they search are notably distinct from the more specific sites (crevices and knotholes) that saddle-back tamarins forage in. Mustached Tamarins travel and forage in the middle and lower canopy above the saddle-back tamarins. Both Mustached Tamarins and saddle-back tamarins forage in (and drink water from) bromeliads. Overlap in prey species captured by Mustached Tamarin and Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin can be minimal. In one study, only three of the 35 prey species identified were eaten by both (9:4% overlap). In a second study, however, overlap was higher; 31 of 62 prey species that could be identified were captured only by Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarin, ten only by Spix’s Mustached Tamarin, and 21 eaten by both (34% overlap). Differences in prey selection reflect different foraging techniques. Mustached Tamarins, foraging in the foliage, find and eat generally smaller insects, most of them green, than those taken by saddle-back tamarins. Vertebrate prey includes mostly frogs (Osteocephalus and Phyllomedusa, Hylidae) but also some lizards (e.g. Norops, Polychrotidae).</p> <p>Breeding. Breeding is usually restricted to a single female, but groups generally contain more than one adult male; the male-female ratio in eight groups studied in the wild was 1-4:1. In four of the groups, paternity was monopolized by one male, but different males sired offspring in successive years in another group. In another group, the twins were believed to have been sired by two males. Relatedness in groupsis generally high, and most non-breeding individuals are either born in the group they are in or are closely related to the same sex breeder. It is unusual for groups to have individuals unrelated to any of the other group members. Births occur throughout the year, except for the dry season months ofJune and July. There is a birth peak during the wet season in November—February, when fruit and probably insect availabilities are at their highest. With a gestation of 150-160 days, the mating season is accordingly in July-September. The norm is for just one litter of twins per year. Interbirth intervals are 8-14 months and average 11-12 months. One study estimated 54 and 64-82 days of postpartum ovarian inactivity in two females, which is 3—4 times longer than in other callitrichids. Mate guarding by males has been observed when females are believed to be ovulating. The stimulus for this mate-guarding is probably from the female’s scent marks. Unlike female saddle-back tamarins, female Mustached Tamarins show physical signs of receptivity with conspicuous cyclic swelling of the vulva (turgid, moistened, and reddish), swollen nipples, and an increase in the size and activity of the suprapubic gland.</p> <p>Activity patterns. The daily activity budget of a group of Red-capped Mustached Tamarin at Urucu was 30% moving, 26% feeding, 20-6% foraging for animal prey, 16-6% resting, and 6-8% engaged in social behavior, intergroup encounters, and other activities. The group’s active day averaged nine hours and twelve minutes. Although they spend much of the day traveling together, Mustached Tamarins and saddle-back tamarins do not sleep together. They separate in the late afternoon and sleep in different trees. They spend over 80% of their time within 50 m of each other and 72% of their time within 20 m of each other. Respective groups at Urucu slept in sites that were 15-120 m apart. When going to their sleeping sites, usually c.16:00 h, they become very quiet, travel rapidly, and follow each other, often single file, along the same pathways. Mustached Tamarins use five types of sleeping sites: the palm Jessenia bataua, tree hollows, dense tangles of foliage in the crowns of trees or near the trunks, crotches of large branches, and horizontal branches in tree crowns. They mostly use palm trees or dense tangles of foliage and occasionally tree crotches and open branches. In contrast, saddle-back tamarins, while preferring palms, use tree hollows as a second choice, but never sleep in crotches or along horizontal branches in the open. Mustached Tamarins do not use tree hollows. Although both species sleep in the same general locations on different nights, neither use specific sleeping sites used by the other species. Mustached Tamarins sleep higher up, for example, in taller palms. Their sleeping sites tend to be in the core of their home range, with no overlap with other conspecific groups.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Spix’s Mustached Tamarins are generally found in groups of ¢.5-6 individuals, but groups of 9-10 individuals have been observed. Number of adults in each group is 2-6, usually with more adult males than females. The group studied at Rio Urucu had 8-10 individuals over a year, with up to 3-5 adult males and 1-2 adult females. When a group has more than one adult female, they are usually of different ages. Groups are quite stable, with reproductive pairs maintaining tenure for four to five years and even as many as seven. Migrations tend to occur following stability-disrupting events, such as entry of new individual into the group when one of the breeding pair is lost, or when groups become too large. Breeding and non-breeding males and females may emigrate to other groups or form new groups. Home ranges of groups at the Rio Blanco were 40-45 ha, with daily movements of 1500-1946 m. The home range of a mixed-species group of Redcapped Mustached Tamarin and Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarins at the Rio Urucu was much larger, ¢.179 ha, but with similar daily movements of 1150-2700 m/day. Aggressive interactions between group members are rare, but they tend to occur over food sources and during intergroup encounters when adult males behave aggressively toward the adult female, preventing her from approaching members of the neighboring group. Grooming is an important feature of their daily social interactions, and it reflects different social standing of group members; the adult reproductive female, for example, is consistently groomed more than she grooms others. Associated groups of Mustached Tamarins and saddle-back tamarins defend their home ranges jointly, with encounters between groups involving vigilance, vocal battles, chases, and even physical combat. Males and females participate, and aggression is directed principally at individuals of the same sex and species. Encounters can last up to two hours. Competition for food resources within the mixed-species groups is not critical, largely due to differences in theirsize, selection of animal prey, and dietary emphasis; saddle-backs, for example, exploiting more small trees and shrubs in the understory. Competition for key fruiting trees among groups of the same species, however, is important. The ability of groups to defend their home ranges is dependent on group size, and this might be a reason for the association between the different species. Predation of a female Spix’s Mustached Tamarin by an anaconda (Eunectes murinus) was observed at Padre Isla; the anaconda caught her when her group was crossing a narrow lake using fallen tree trunks as stepping-stones. Mustached Tamarins mob predators and may even attack them. A mixed-species group of Geoffroy’s Saddle-back Tamarins and Mustached Tamarins were seen mobbing a 1-5-m boa constrictor (Boa constrictor) when it caught a subadult male Mustached Tamarin by his leg. An adult male Mustached Tamarin bit the boa constrictor just behind its head and a female did the same about halfway along its body length. Their attacks were successful and caused the boa constrictor to release the subadult and leave the area. Crested eagles (Morphnus guianensis) are also predators of Mustached Tamarins. Alarm calls for avian predators are given at a rate of ¢.0-3 calls/hour—the majority elicited by raptors, and the rate of alarm calling increases following the birth of an infant. On hearing or giving an alarm call, Mustached Tamarins climb down or run from the periphery of a tree to the trunk, occasionally hiding under large leaves of palms. Other birds that cause alarm include ornate hawkeagle (Spizaetus ornatus), vultures (Coragyps, Cathartes), forest falcons (Micrastur), blackcollared hawks (Busarellus nigricollis, an insect eater that often follows tamarins), herons, yellow-rumped caciques (Cacicus cela), and smooth-billed anis (Crotophaga ani). Toucans (Ramphastos) and species of parrots can also elicit alarm calling. Densities of Spix’s Mustached Tamarin at 18 localities in Peru ranged from 7 ind/km? (Rio Tamshiyacu) to 84 ind/km? (Quebrada Vainilla, Rio Amazonas), or 14-14 groups/km?. Most densities were 20-30 ind/km? or 5 groups/km?. Surveys at three localities in the Rio Jurua Basin in Brazil provided estimates of 22 ind/km?, 31 ind/km?, and 33 ind/ km?. Densities of Red-capped Mustached Tamarins at threesites in and near the Urucu Basin in Brazil were 10-7 ind/km?, 11-6 ind/km?, and 12 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Mustached Tamarin is generally common but less adaptable to environmental disturbance than other tamarins. It is sometimes hunted for meat by local people because of it large size. There are two protected areas within the distribution of Spix’s Mustached Tamarin in Brazil: Serra do Divisor National Park andJutai-Solimoes Ecological Reserve. The only protected area in the Peruvian part of its distribution is ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo. The White-rump Mustached Tamarin may occur in the part of the Abufari Biological Reserve thatis west of the Rio Purus.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Box &amp; Morris (1980), Fang (1990), Garber (1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993a, 1993b), Garber &amp; Dolins (1996), Garber &amp; Kitron (1997), Garber &amp; Pruetz (1995), Garber &amp; Teaford (1986), Garber, Encarnacion et al. (1993), Garber, Moya &amp; Malaga (1984), Garber, Moya, Pruetz &amp; Ique (1996), Garber, Pruetz &amp; Isaacson (1993), Gazzo (1990), Glander et al. (1984), Gozalo &amp; Montoya (1992), Hershkovitz (1977), Heymann (1987a, 1987b, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1992a, 1992b, 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1996, 1997, 1998b, 2000b, 2000c, 2001), Heymann &amp; Buchanan-Smith (2000), Heymann &amp; Hartmann (1991), Heymann &amp; Sicchar Valdez (1988), Heymann &amp; Smith (1999), Heymann et al. (2000), Huck, Lottker &amp; Heymann (2004a, 2004b), Huck, Lottker, Heymann &amp; Heistermann (2004), Knogge &amp; Heymann (2003), Lottker (2005), Lottker, Huck &amp; Heymann (2004), Lottker, Huck, Heymann &amp; Heistermann (2004), Moya, Ique &amp; Soini (1990), Moya, Verdi et al. (1990), Nickle &amp; Heymann (1996), Norconk (1990), Oversluijs &amp; Heymann (2001), Peres (19913, 1992a, 1992b, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1993d, 1994a, 1994b, 1996b, 2000b), Ramirez (1984, 1985, 1989), Rylands &amp; Mittermeier (2008), Rylands et al. (1993), Sicchar &amp; Heymann (1992), Smith (1997, 2000a, 2000b), Smith, Knogge et al. (2007), Smith, Tirado et al. (2001), Snowdon &amp; Hodun (1985), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Soini &amp; de Soini (1983, 1986, 1990a, 1990b), Soini et al. (1989), Tapia et al. (1990), Tello et al. (2002), Tirado et al. (2003).</p> </div>	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC9FFD8FFC7FEE8696EE64F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFC8FFDBFA36F98D6B97EC32.text	DF668780FFC8FFDBFA36F98D6B97EC32.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus labiatus (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1812)	<div><p>34.</p> <p>Red-bellied Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus labiatus</p> <p>French: Tamarin labié / German: Rotbauchtamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de pecho rojo Other common names: Geoffroy's Red-bellied Tamarin, Red-chested Mustached Tamarin, White-lipped Tamarin; Gray's Red-bellied Tamarin (rufiventer), Thomas's Mustached/Thomas's Red-bellied Tamarin (thomasi)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas labiatus E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by A. Cabrera in 1957 to Lago do Joanacan (= Janauaca), Amazonas State.</p> <p>A. Humboldt is often credited in various ways with the name of this species, but E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is the rightful authority. Humboldt in 1812 (dated 1811 but actually published a year later) credited Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for his 1812 publication in Tome 19 of Annales du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, where this species’ name first appeared. Humboldt’s nomenclatural act was a “name combination” in which he combined the name given by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire with the genus Simia. The type locality of S. labiatus is within the distribution of rufiventer, considered by A. Cabrera to be ajunior synonym. In contrast, J. E. Gray, author of Jacchus rufiventer, indicated a type locality of “ Mexico,” which is not helpful. The Lago Janauaca could be the designated type locality of the subspecies rufiventer, with the suggestion of P. Hershkovitz in 1977 that the type locality of the subspecies labiatus is “somewhere between the rios Purus and Madeira south of the Rio Ipixuna, in the region of griseovertex named by Goeldi in 1907.” The type locality of thomast is the Rio Tonantins. Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. I. labiatusE. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 — W Brazil, SE Peru, and N Bolivia, between the Rio Purus and Rio Madeira-Abuna system, S of the Rio Ipixuna, crossing the headwaters of the Rio Abuna in Bolivia, and S to the Rio Tahuamanu in N Bolivia, extending into SE Peru, but not W of the headwaters of the Rio Purus. S. L rufiventer Gray, 1843 — W Brazil (Amazonas State), between the rios Madeira and Purus, S from the Rio Solimoes to the Rio Ipixuna. S. I. thomasi Goeldi, 1907 — NW Brazil (Amazonas State), between the rios Japura and Solimoes, from the Auati-Parana to the Rio Tonantins.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21-28 cm, tail 30-38 cm; weight 400-510 g. The Redbellied Tamarin is generally blackish, typified by its striking reddish or orange underside, with a paler wash to the hindparts. The nape and mantle are agouti, and the tail has red or orange on the ventral surface of the base. There is a whitish crown spot, sometimes with a red mark, and facial skin is black with a white moustache that outlines the upper lip. The nominate subspecies labiatus is mainly black with white marbling on the hindparts, with a red underside (except for the throat) and basal part of the ventral surface of the tail. The “Gray’s Red-bellied Tamarin” (S. L. rufiventer) is similar to the subspecies labiatus, but with a red, Y-shaped mark on the front of the crown and a slight silvery patch behind. In northerly populations, this red crown mark is well expressed, whereas to the south, it is barely distinguishable but has a sharply marked white spot behind. In the “Thomas’s Red-bellied Tamarin” (S. I. thomas), the throat and the upper chest are black, with the rest of the underside, including the basal part of the ventral surface of the tail, orange. The crown is black, with either a poorly developed reddish midline in front or none at all and a small pale silvery spot behind.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary evergreen and semi-deciduous forest. Red-bellied Tamarins typically use the middle layers of the canopy in tall forest with sparse understories (“monte alto”), tall forest without a closed canopy and dense understories (“monte bajo”), secondary forests with a canopy heights of 10-20 m (“barbecho claro”), and dense secondary forests without a closed canopy (“barbecho tupido”). They do not occur in large tracts of mature forest with sparse understories. Unlike saddle-back tamarins, Red-bellied Tamarins very rarely use the understory or the top canopy above 25 m and mainly use the middle canopy at heights of 14 m (range 10- 25 m). Studies of wild Red-bellied Tamarins in mixed-species groups with Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins (S. weddelli) and Goeldi’s Monkeys (Callimico goeldii) have been conducted in north-western Bolivia, Pando Department, by a number of researchers. Most notably, A. and G. Pook, M. Yoneda, H. Buchanan-Smith, and S. Hardie. L.. Porter was successful in habituating groups and conducting a long-term study there, focused on Goeldi’s Monkey. J. Rehg also studied mixed-species groups involving Red-bellied Tamarins in Brazil.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of Red-bellied Tamarins consist of fruits (generally small and succulent), gum, nectar, and small animal prey. Fruits eaten include especially those of a number of Moraceae (Pseudolmedia, Helicostylis tomentosa, Castilla ulei, Olmedia aspera, and Brosimum alicastrum), Pourouma cecropiifolia and Cecropia sciadophylla (both Urticaceae), and Inga (Fabaceae). They eat gum exuded from seed pods of Parkia pendula (Mimosaceae) and nectar from flowers of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae). Red-bellied Tamarins forage for animal prey on leaves nearly 90% of the time and spend very little time searching on bark and in crevices, in contrast to saddle-back tamarins.</p> <p>Breeding. Births of twin Red-bellied Tamarins have been recorded in the early wet season in October-November.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Red-bellied Tamarins generally leave their sleeping sites one to two hours after sunrise, (06:15-07:30 h) and retire at 16:00-16:30 h, being active for about ten hours each day. Sleeping sites are at heights of 9-18 m above the ground in holes of tree trunks and branches, forks in trees, dense vegetation and vine tangles, and even old termite mounds. In mixed-species groups, Red-bellied Tamarins are generally the first to retire, but they travel, forage, and feed more and rest less than saddle-back tamarins. A group of Red-bellied Tamarins in north-western Bolivia spent 46% ofits day resting, 32% traveling, 12% foraging, and 10% feeding. The belief is that the foliage foraging of Red-bellied Tamarinsis less efficient than that of saddle-back tamarins. They tend to catch smaller insects and take more time to find and catch them than saddle-back tamarins that target specific sites lower in the forest canopy, catching fewer but larger prey.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Red-bellied Tamarins contain 4-10 individuals, with as many as 2-3 adult males and 2-3 adult females in each. Home ranges are 30-35 ha, and daily movements are 1300-2300 m. Where they are sympatric, Red-bellied Tamarins form mixed-species groups with saddle-back tamarins, sharing and defending a common home range and spending 60-70% of the day traveling and feeding together. In certain areas, they also associate with Goeldi’s Monkeys that have larger home ranges (100-150 ha) and associate with up to eight different mixed-species tamarin groups. Red-bellied Tamarins are larger than the saddle-backs; they lead the mixed-species group's activities and are dominant at feeding sites. Densities are 2:9-6-6 groups/km*in the Pando area and 0-94—4 groups/km?in south-eastern Peru.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Red-bellied Tamarins south of the Rio Solimoes have relatively large geographic distributions between the rios Purus and Madeira. Forests in the southern part of their distribution (i.e. Acre State, Brazil; Pando region of Bolivia; and south-eastern Peru) are undergoing progressive destruction and fragmentation from logging, cattle ranching, farming, highways, colonization, and urbanization. Gray’s Red-bellied Tamarin has a restricted distribution to the north of the Rio Solimoes in a region that is quite remote and currently unspoiled. The subspecies labiatus probably occurs in Cunia Ecological Station and Lago do Cunia Extractivist Reserve in Brazil, but it is not known to occur in any protected areas in Peru or Bolivia. The Gray’s Red-bellied Tamarin might occur in part of Abufari Biological Reserve, Amazonas State, to the east of the Rio Purus. The little known Thomas's Red-bellied Tamarin has not been recorded in any protected area in Brazil, although it might occur in Juami-Japura Ecological Station north of the Rio Tonantins.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Castro (1989), Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Buchanan-Smith (1989, 1990, 1991a, 1991b, 1999), Buchanan-Smith &amp; Hardie (1997), Caine (1986), Caine &amp; Marra (1988), Caine &amp; Stevens (1990), Caine &amp; Weldon (1989), Caine et al. (1995), Castro et al. (1990), Encarnacién &amp; Castro (1990), Garber &amp; Leigh (2001), Garcia (1993), Groves (2001), Hardie (1995, 1998), Hardie &amp; Buchanan-Smith (1997, 2000), Hershkovitz (1977), Izawa &amp; Bejarano (1981), Maeda &amp; Masataka (1987), Marczynska et al. (1983), Masataka (1987), Ogden &amp; Wolfe (1979), Pook &amp; Pook (1982), Porter (2001b, 2004, 2007), Puertas et al. (1995), Rylands et al. (1993), Silva (1988), Smith &amp; Gordon (2002), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Valverde et al. (1990), Yoneda (1981, 1984b).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFC8FFDBFA36F98D6B97EC32	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFCBFFDAFFDEF3636A1CE28C.text	DF668780FFCBFFDAFFDEF3636A1CE28C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus imperator (Goeldi 1907)	<div><p>35.</p> <p>Emperor Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus imperator</p> <p>French: Tamarin empereur / German: Kaiserschnurrbarttamarin / Spanish: Tamarin emperador Other common names: Bearded Emperor Tamarin (subgrisescens), Black-chinned Emperor Tamarin (imperaton</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas imperator Goeldi, 1907,</p> <p>Rio Acre, upper Rio Purus, Brazil.</p> <p>Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. i. imperator Goeldi, 1907 — Brazilian Amazon into Peru, E of the upper Rio Purus, between the rios Purus and Acre; the distribution is probably more complex than is currently understood. S. 1. subgrisescens Lonnberg, 1940 — Amazon in W Brazil, SE Peru, and NW Bolivia, in Brazil E of upper Rio Jurua to the rios Tarauaca and Jurupari, in Peru W to the rios Urubamba and Inuya and S of Rio Tahuamanu to the Rio Muyumanu Basin in Peru and Bolivia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 23-26 cm,tail 35-42 cm; weight 400-550 g. The body of the Emperor Tamarin is agouti-gray-buff. Hands and feet black, and thetail is orangeyred, with a dark tip. Facial skin is black. Both subspecies have a greatly elongated white moustache that hangs down to the forearms in two separate strands. In the “Blackchinned Emperor Tamarin” (S. i. imperator), the upper body is mainly dark grayishagouti or buffy in color, with rusty-red or orange on underside and inner surfaces of arms. The crownis silvery-brown, and the white chin hairs are short and do not hide the black chin patch. In the “Bearded Emperor Tamarin” (S. i. subgrisescens), upperparts are brown-agouti, and the underside and inner surfaces of arms are grizzledbrown. White chin whiskers are elongated into a small beard, largely hiding the blackish patch beneath.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest. The Emperor Tamarin occurs in successional forest, such as tree falls and riparian and lacustrine (lakeside) habitats in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in south-eastern Peru. As is true for other mustached tamarins, Emperor Tamarins travel and feed mostly in the lower and middle canopy of the forest at 11-20 m above the ground and above Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins (S. weddelli), with which they associate while foraging and traveling. More than one-half offruit feeding by the Emperor Tamarin occurs in the middle and lower canopy at heights of 20-30 m, and they occasionally go higher into the upper canopy or emergent trees; sympatric saddle-backs apparently never go that high. In the Serra do Divisor National Park in extreme western Brazil, they travel with Goeldi’s Monkeys (Callimico goeldir), but they have not been seen to form polyspecific associations with the white subspecies of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin, the “White-mantled Saddle-back Tamarin” (S. w. melanoleucus), that occurs there between the rios Jurua and Envira.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of Emperor Tamarins include fruit, nectar, gums, fungi, and small animal prey. In Manu, fruit dominates the diet in the wet-season, accounting for 97% of the plant material consumed. This drops to ¢.41% in the dry season, with an increase in feeding on nectar (52%). Gums are eaten in small quantities (1-2%) in the wet and dry seasons, and small amounts of flowers and fungi are eaten in the wet season. Most (87%) of the fruits eaten by Emperor Tamarins are 0-5-1 cm in length. Larger fruits include hard berries of Leonia glycycarpa (Violaceae) (4-4 cm x 4 cm) and Duguetia quitarensis (Annonaceae) (8-5 cm). Emperor Tamarins often travel in mixed-species groups with Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarins, and both species exploit the same fruiting trees—important features of which are their relative abundance and their habit of fruiting piecemeal for long periods of time. For example, both species spent as much as 90% of their time feeding on fruits of Celtis iguanaea (Ulmaceae) in March—August. In Manu, other key food sources are fruits (drupes) of Pourouma cecropiifolia (Urticaceae) and Guatteria (Annonaceae) and, in the dry season, nectar of the vine Combretum assimile (Combretaceae) and the tree Quararibea cordata (Bombacaceae). Emperor Tamarins eat a wide range of small animals, especially orthopterans and lepidopteran larvae, but also ants, coleopterans (adults and larvae), snails, and frogs. While hunting for prey, Emperor Tamarins typically use vines to support them, and they search foliage, palm fronds, branches, and,less often,sites such as knot holes and epiphytes. They capture visible, exposed, and sluggish prey by stealth and pounce. Squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) search similar substrates and have similar searching techniques but, being larger, are less agile in catching orthopterans and rely instead more on Lepidoptera larvae and pupae. Associated saddle-back tamarins have a very distinct mode of foraging, searching manually for hidden prey especially in crevices and knot holes on tree trunks lower in the understory.</p> <p>Breeding. At Manu, births of Emperor Tamarins occur in the early wet season in October—-November.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Annual activity budgets of Emperor Tamarins involve ¢.34% of their time foraging for animal prey, 25% resting, 21% traveling, and 17% feeding on plant material; the remainder of their time is spent on social activities. Early morning is marked by a peak of feeding on fruit (or nectar when fruits are lacking), and foraging for animal prey is almost constant through the day. Another peak of feeding on plant material occurs in late afternoon. They tend to rest more in the early afternoon c.14:00 h.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Emperor Tamarins live in small extended family groups of 2-10 individuals, generally with a single breeding female. At Manu, mean group size is four, and home ranges are c.30 ha. They are very territorial, and home range overlap is minimal.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Emperor Tamarin is on national official lists of threatened species in Brazil and Peru. It is generally uncommon, with a patchy distribution. It is threatened mainly by habitat destruction, but it is also hunted in some areas. Peruvian Indians covet the teeth of Emperor Tamarins for use in making ornaments. The Black-chinned Emperor Tamarin has a very small distribution, and the Brazilian Acre State, its main stronghold, has been undergoing widespread development in recent years, with widespread destruction ofits forests. Rio Acre Ecological Station is within its distribution, and it probably also occurs in a number of other protected areas, including Chico Mendes Extractivist Reserve, Macaua National Forest, and Macaua and Antimari state forests to the north—all between the rios Acre and Purus. The Bearded Emperor Tamarin has a larger distribution than the Black-chinned Emperor Tamarin, and it is protected in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve and the southern part (south of the Rio Jurua) of the Serra do Divisor National Park in Brazil. In Bolivia, it occurs in Manuripi Heath Nature Reserve in the Pando Department.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Azevedo &amp; Rehg (2003), Baker &amp; Woods (1992), Benirschke et al. (1982), Bicca-Marques (1999, 2003a, 2005, 2006), Bicca-Marques &amp; Garber (2003, 2005), Bicca-Marques et al. (1997), Encarnacion &amp; Castro (1990), Garber &amp; Bicca-Marques (2002), Hershkovitz (1977, 1979a), lzawa &amp; Bejarano (1981), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Terborgh (1983), Terborgh &amp; Goldizen (1985), Windfelder (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFCBFFDAFFDEF3636A1CE28C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFCAFFDAFF38FCCC687FE7EB.text	DF668780FFCAFFDAFF38FCCC687FE7EB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus midas (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>36.</p> <p>Midas Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus midas</p> <p>French: Tamarin @ mains dorées / German: Goldhandtamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Midas Other common names: Golden-handed Tamarin, Red-handed Tamarin, Yellow-handed Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia midas Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>America. Restricted by J. C. D. von Schreber in 1775 to Suriname.</p> <p>Red-handed and golden-handed forms of S. midas may be distinct taxa on either side of the Rio Jari (yellow handed to the east, red-handed to the west). Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE Amazon in Brazil and the Guianas, in Guyana restricted to the right bank of the Essequibo River, and S and E of the Rupununi River, the Rio Negro and its tributary the Rio Branco are the W limit ofits distribution in Brazil; not recorded in Venezuela.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 24-6 cm (males) and 25-2 cm (females), tail 38-3 cm (males) and 38:6 cm (females); weight 380-500 g. The Midas Tamarin is primarily black. The face, head, shoulders, arms, legs, tail, and underparts are uniformly black. The back from the shoulders to the base of the tail is black mottled or marbled with buff. Hands and feet are orange or yellowish-orange and contrast sharply with the rest of the body. Juveniles differ slightly from adults in having a band or wedge of white on the forehead and white or buffy patches on the cheeks. Ears are notched and bare in adults, but they are covered with hair in juveniles.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary, secondary, and disturbed forest and forest edge (often found near tree falls). The Midas Tamarin occurs in a wide variety of habitats in Suriname; it is common in high and low rainforest, savanna forest, mountain savanna forest, liana forest, and various secondary formations. It sometimes enters marsh forest and swamp forest. It tends to avoid igap6 forest. In contrast to squirrel monkeys (Saimiri), Midas Tamarins are rarely seen along riverbanks.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Midas Tamarins are quite common and easily observed, but it have not been studied much in the wild. Their diet consists mainly of insects and other invertebrates (50%) and soft parts of small to medium-sized fruits (47%), and unidentified content (3%). An analysis of stomach contents (43 individuals hunted during ten years at a site in French Guiana) showed that the relative proportions of insects in the diet tended to be higher in the wet season when fruits were more abundant. The Midas Tamarin maintains a constant intake of insects, amounting to more than 40% by weight throughout the year. Fruits are usually swallowed whole and seeds are excreted later,as is the case offruits with very small seeds (e.g. Cecropia infructescences). Alternatively, soft outer layers of fruits are chewed off, and seeds are dropped (e.g. Inga fruits). Midas Tamarins are seed dispersers for a number of species, and seed predation is relatively rare but occurs occasionally. Flowers are also sometimes eaten. They lick nectar of, for example, the red flowers of Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) and eat copious gum exuded from seed pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae). Insects and other arthropods eaten include members of Araneae, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera. As in other tamarins and marmosets, frogs and lizards are also undoubtedly favored prey. Abundances of animal prey and fruits change seasonally. Nectar and gum are important at times of fruit shortage in the dry season when Midas Tamarins increase their time spent foraging for animal prey.</p> <p>Breeding. As a rule, only one female Midas Tamarin breeds in each group, generally producing twins during the early part of the wet season in October-December. Gestation is ¢.150 days. The mother tends to carry her young during the first few days, but other group members, particularly the father, participate in infant care from then on. Young are carried constantly until about three weeks of age, but during the following three months, they spend more and more time off the caretakers’ backs and achieve full independence by five months. They are fully weaned by the fourth month. At seven months, offspring are considered to be juveniles, and they reach sexual maturity at 14-21 months old.</p> <p>Activity patterns. The Midas Tamarin occupies mainly the lower canopy and understory, 10-20 m above the ground, but moves into the upper canopy of the forest mainly to feed on fruits. It is easiest to find in the early morning when groups give their characteristic whistling long-calls. They tend to become quieter at ¢.10:00 h and again around midday, resting in the sun (typically adopting a sprawling posture) and grooming each other. In contrast to the other primates, they tend to retire to their sleeping sites early at 16:00-17:00 h, well before sunset. They sleep in dense vegetation and liana tangles in the middle and lower canopy.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Midas Tamarin occurs in groups of 3-12 individuals; average group size in Guyana is 5-2 individuals, with 1-2 females and up to three males, along with juveniles and subadults. Sixteen groups encountered during surveys in the Brownsberg Nature Park, Suriname, averaged 5-7 individuals (range 3-8). A six-month study of four groups indicated home ranges of 34-39 ha. Home ranges overlapped extensively (at least 46%), but the central parts of their home ranges were aggressively defended. They travel up to 2000 m/day, spending a large part of their time moving between fruiting trees and foraging for animal prey. Densities of four groups in Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve, Suriname, were 23-5 ind/km?. Densities in four locations in Guyana were 2-3-13-9 ind/km?, with an overall estimate of 4-4 ind/km? for the entire country. Midas Tamarins are the most common primate at the Nourague Field Station on the Arataye River in French Guiana; their density was 37-1 ind/km?, with a biomass of 21-4 kg/km?. In the Brazilian Amazon, densities of 16-4-33-5 ind/km” were estimated at Porto Platon, Amapa State. North of Manaus, lower densities of 0-6 groups/km?, or 3-9 ind/km?, were found in tall dryland forest; and Midas Tamarins were absent from large tracts of forest where the understory was sparse. Predators undoubtedly include all large and medium-sized raptors, forest cats, and snakes. Predation attempts have by the Guiana crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) and the Tayra (Eira barbara) have been recorded.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Midas Tamarin is widespread and common, particularly in Guyana and Suriname but also likely in French Guiana. Studies in forest fragments of different sizes north of Manaus indicate that patches of 10 ha or less are insufficient for the persistence of Midas Tamarins. Fragments of 100 ha or more are needed for the persistence of 1-2 groups, depending, of course, on the floristic composition of fragments and their connectivity and proximity to nearby forests. In Suriname, they occur in the following protected areas: Brownsberg Nature Park, Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve, Tafelberg Nature Reserve, Eilerts de haan Gebergte Nature Reserve, and Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve. Their probable presence in Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve and Coppename Mouth Nature Reserve has not been confirmed. It is not known if they occur in Kaieteur Falls National Park in Guyana, but they are absent from Iwokrama Forest Reserve to the west of the middle Essequibo River. In Brazil, they occur in numerous protected areas in the states of Amapa, Para, and Amazonas.</p> <p>Bibliography. Day &amp; Elwood (1999), De Thoisy et al. (2010), Fleagle &amp; Mittermeier (1980), Galef et al. (1976), Gilbert (2003), Grafton &amp; Vanderhoff (2009), Hershkovitz (1977), Kessler (1995a, 1995b, 1998), Lehman, Sussman et al. (2006), Mallinson (1971), Mittermeier &amp; van Roosmalen (1981, 1982), Moura (2003), Muckenhirn &amp; Eisenberg (1978), Muckenhirn et al. (1975), Nagamachi et al. (1990), Norconk et al. (2003), Nunes et al. (1988), Pack et al. (1999), Parker et al. (1993), Rylands &amp; Keuroghlian (1988), Schiel &amp; Souto (2000), Schmid &amp; Glaser (1977), Schwarzkopf &amp; Rylands (1989), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Sussman &amp; Phillips-Conroy (1995), Tagliaro et al. (2005), Thorington (1968a), Trolle (2003), Urbani (2006), Vallinoto et al. (2006), Vanderhoff &amp; Grafton (2009), Vessey et al. (1978), Youlatos (1995).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFCAFFDAFF38FCCC687FE7EB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFCAFFE5FA3CF8376744E24B.text	DF668780FFCAFFE5FA3CF8376744E24B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus niger (E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1803)	<div><p>37.</p> <p>Black-handed Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus niger</p> <p>French: Tamarin noir / German: Mohrentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de manos negras Other common names: Black Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sagouin niger E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803,</p> <p>Cayenne [French Guiana]. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to Belém, Para State, Brazil.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. midas. No subspecies are recognized here, but molecular genetic studies have indicated distinct taxa on either side of the Rio Tocantins. Mystax wursulus umbratus described by O. Thomas in 1922 from Cameta, Rio Tocantins, Para, may in this case be considered a distinct taxon. A. Cabrera in his 1957 compilation mentioned the form wumbratus as of doubtful validity but recommended further study of the tamarins on either side of the Rio Tocantins. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, S of the Rio Amazonas, E of the Rio Xingu and Rio Fresco as far as the coast, E to the interfluvium of the rios Itapecuru and Mearim, and in the W part of Marajo I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21-26 cm, tail 32-40 cm; weight mean 431 g (males, n = 6) and 428 g (females, n = 9). The Black-handed Tamarin is generally similar in morphology to the Midas Tamarin (S. midas) but smaller and with larger ears. In a comparative analysis of tooth shape in the genus it was found that Midas and Blackhanded tamarins were as different from each other as were the Red-bellied Tamarin (S. labiatus) and the Mustached Tamarin (S. mystax) and showed a greater difference than was found between Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. fuscicollis) and the Black-mantled Tamarin (S. nigricollis). This reinforced the argument that they be considered separate species. The fur is entirely black, except the lower back, which is marbled with buff. Facial skin is black.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary lowland, montane, submontane, and secondary forest, swamps, and forest edge. It is sympatric with the Silvery Marmoset (Mico argentatus) in lowland forests in the northern part of its distribution but not in the upland (Brazilian Shield) area east of the Rio Xingu to the south, where floristic composition of upland forest might not favor coexistence of the two species. A six-month study in a 210-ha forest in Paragominas, Para, found seasonal differences in use of tall mature forest and secondary growth, associated with changes in distribution of their sources offruits. In the dry season, groups spent more than one-half of their time in mature forest and less than one-third of their time in secondary forest. In the wet season, fruiting trees were more available (more trees and a greater variety of species) in the secondary forest, and the reverse was true in mature forest. In the dry season, fruit was similarly distributed between mature and secondary forests. During a five-month study in the Caxiuana National Forest, Pard, a group spent ¢.39% ofits time in secondary forest, 42% in primary forest, 6% in seasonally flooded (black-water) forest (igapo), and 12% in edge habitat. Their ability to survive in a selectively logged and disturbed forest (broken canopy and clearings) was demonstrated in a study of a group in a 25-ha forest patch in the Brazil National Primate Center in the suburbs of Belem.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. There have been three studies of feeding behavior and ecology of the Black-handed Tamarin: one of a group of 4-7 individuals for six months (1995-1996) in a 210-ha forest in Paragominas, Para, another of a group of 3-5 individuals for five months (1996) in the Caxiuana National Forest, and a third group of 5-7 individuals for five months (2000) in an urbanized forest in Ananindeua, Para, at the Brazil National Primate Center. The Paragominas group was unusually frugivorous, with fruit comprising 87-5% of the diet: 82:8% in the dry season and 90-8% in the wet season. Gum from the large hanging seed pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae) comprised 8:6% of the diet in the dry season. Seventeen species of trees provided fruits: eight in secondary forest, six in both secondary and mature primary forest, and three in primary forest (P. pendula grew only in primary forest). Genera providing fruits included Rollinia (Annonaceae), Inga (Fabaceae), Myrcia (Myrtaceae), Bagassa (Moraceae), Tetragastris (Burseraceae), Pourouma (Urticaceae), and Achrouteria, Chrysophyllum, Pouteria, and Manilkara (all Sapotaceae). Black-handed Tamarins swallowed and defecated intact seeds of at least six of these species. All were quite large, but with a diameter of less than 1 cm or a length of less than 2 cm. Passage time for these seeds was two to four hours, or sufficient time for the tamarins to travel 300-500 m from the parent tree. The diet of the group in Caxiuana was more diverse, including fruits (largely fleshy mesocarps and arils) of 46 species, nectar of four species, and gums of eight species. Sapotacaeae, Fabaceae, and Burseraceae were the most important families. During the five months of study, 49% of the time was spent feeding on fruit, 28% nectar, and 18% gums 18%. Five percent was dedicate to small animal prey. Fruits were predominant and more diverse (85% of the species exploited) in the wet season. Three species were particularly important in providing fruits in the dry season: Byrsonima aerugo (Malpighiceae), Goupia glabra (Goupiaceae), and Inga laterifolia (Fabaceae). Gums and nectar were important in the dry season. Gums were obtained from three species of Parkia (Fabaceae), two from their fruits (£. pendula and P. cf. oppositifolia); Tapirira guianensis and Anacardium giganteum (both Anacardiceae); Vochysia obscura (Vochysiaceae); Cochlospermum orinocense (Cochlospermaceae); and Sterculia pruriens (Sterculiaceae). Black-handed Tamarins exploited gums exuded from the holes gouged by sympatric Silvery Marmosets. Nectar, eaten only in the dry season, was taken from flowers of Symphonia globulifera (found in the seasonally flooded forest), a species of Moronobea (Clusiaceae), Lacmellea aculeata (Apocynaceae), and Inga alba (Fabaceae). Seasonal differences in the diet were apparent in this study. In the wet season, fruits made up 95% and gum 5% of the plant feeding records. In the dry season, fruits were reduced to 26%, nectar made up 45%, and gum 25%. In the Ananindeua group, consumption of fruits of nine species comprised 94% of the feeding records, and seeds of four of them were ingested. The remaining 6% of the records was feeding on insects, mainly orthopterans.</p> <p>Breeding. Newborn Black-handed Tamarins have been observed in January (early wet season) and late July (dry season).</p> <p>Activity patterns. The daily activity budget for the group of Black-handed Tamarins studied in Caxiuana National Forest for five months was: 42% traveling, 20% foraging for animal prey, 18% feeding, 14% resting, and 6% social activities. The group used all levels of the forest to above 30 m but spent more than one-third ofits time 6-20 m above the forest floor. A similar activity budget was recorded for the Ananindeua group, but slightly more time was spent traveling (59%, believed to be due to them being skittish), less time foraging (10%) and resting (10%), but about the same amount of time feeding on fruits (16%) and in social activities (5%). As with the Caxiuana study, the Ananindeua group spent the majority ofits time in the middle and lower canopy and understory at 5-20 m.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of the Black-handed Tamarin are 2-8 individuals. Home range of the group of 4-7 individuals at Paragominas was 28 ha during six months; that of the group of 3-5 individuals studied for five months in Caxiuana was ¢.37 ha. Although home ranges of Black-handed Tamarin groups overlap those of Silvery Marmosets, there is no evidence of associations between the two species, as has been found for Rondon’s Marmoset (Mico rondoni) and Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin (S. weddelli). This may be due to the fact that Blackhanded Tamarins and Silvery Marmosets are similar in size and have similar foraging strategies for animal prey, whereas the foraging strategy of Weddell’s Saddle-back Tamarin—typically foraging in specific sites (crevices and knot holes) and from the forest floor to 10 m above the ground—is quite distinct from that of Rondon’s Marmoset. At Caxiuana, Silvery Marmosets eat gums throughout the year, use secondary growth more than Black-handed Tamarins, and have smaller home ranges of c.13 ha. Systematic monitoring of Black-handed Tamarin numbers in part of Caxiuana provided density estimates of 10-5 ind/km? or 2-5 groups/km?. Surveys in four localities in Paragominas, provided density estimates of 10-4-23-3 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Unfortunately, the Black-handed Tamarin occurs in one ofthe fastest developing regions of Brazil, and currently protected areas within its distribution have been negatively wrecked (e.g. Gurupi Biological Reserve). It occurs in Caxiuana National Forest, Gurupi Biological Reserve, and Tapirapé Biological Reserve.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cabrera (1957), Fernandes et al. (1995), Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1990a, 1996), Hershkovitz (1977), Lima et al. (1997), Muniz et al. (1986), Nagamachi &amp; Pieczarka (1988), Natori &amp; Hanihara (1992), Oliveira (1996), Oliveira &amp; Ferrari (2000, 2008), Peres (1989c), Silva (1999), Silva &amp; Ferrari (2007), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Tagliaro et al. (2005), Vallinoto et al. (2006), Veracini (2000, 2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFCAFFE5FA3CF8376744E24B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF5FFE4FAD2FD8A6D28E75F.text	DF668780FFF5FFE4FAD2FD8A6D28E75F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus bicolor (Spix 1823)	<div><p>38.</p> <p>Pied Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus bicolor</p> <p>French: Tamarin bicolore / German: Zweifarbtamarin / Spanish: Tamarin bicolor Other common names: Brazilian Bare-faced Tamarin, Pied Bare-faced Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas bicolor Spix, 1823,</p> <p>Manaus, Barra do Rio Negro, Brazil.</p> <p>Formerly considered to have two subspecies (martinst and ochraceus), but S. martinst is now a full species, and ochraceus may be a hybrid S. martinsi x S. bicolor. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, in a small area N of the Rio Solimoes, from the Rio Negro E as far as the Rio Urubu, and N up to the Rio Cuieiras, 30-45 km N of the city of Manaus.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 23-33 cm,tail 34-42 cm; weight 480-600 g. Arms, neck, chest, crown, and mantle of the Pied Tamarin are whitish, abruptly demarcated from the agouti-brown dorsal hindquarters. The underside, including inner surfaces of hindlimbs, is orange or reddish-gold. The tail is dark brown above and orange below, and the face and ears are bare and black.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary mature, old (canopy height 20-25 m) and young (canopy height 15 m) secondary lowland forest (the latter known as “capoeira”), generally on dry land, although it is also known to occur in seasonally flooded forest. Home ranges of the Pied Tamarin include a mosaic of these forest types, “campinarana” (white sand forest) patches, and edge habitat. It can be seen in disturbed forest fragments in suburban areas of Manaus. In one study near the Rio Taruma-acu by S. Egler, a group of Pied Tamarin used mature secondary forest (52% of the time) and capoeira in roughly equal proportions (47%); use of a small patch of campinarana was minimal (c.1%).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. An eleven-month study of a Pied Tamarin group near the Rio Taruma-acu found that fruits comprised ¢.96% of the diet, exudates (gum) 3%, and flowers (nectar) c.1%. Fruits came from 21 plants in twelve families and were mostly berries and pods. Berries were generally small, except those of Couma utilis (Apocynaceae), and pods were mainly small and easily opened, except those of Inga ingoides (Fabaceae) that were 40-80 cm long and required concerted effort by older individuals to open them. Seeds of Inga have juicy sweet arils. Seeds are usually discarded, unless small (e.g. Rollinia exsucca, Annonaceae). The most important species were: Couma utilis, a staple, providing fruits throughout the wet season in November—April; Myrcia cf. fallax (Myrtaceae), very important in the dry season months of August and September; and Protium aracouchini (Burseraceae) in May-July. Two other species provided fruits for prolonged periods: Miconia lepidota (Melastomataceae) in the dry season in May-September and Piper aduncum (Piperaceae), intermittently in June and November—April in the wet season. Pied Tamarins eat fruit from all levels of the forest, up to 20 m or more, but mostly they find them in trees with small canopies at 10-12 m above the forest floor. In the dry season, they eat small amounts of readily available gums from seed pods of Parkia auriculata and P. multijuga (Fabaceae) and the trunk and branches of Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae) and Vochysia obscura (Vochysiaceae) after attack by wood-boring insects. In urban areas, they eat cultivated fruits such as mango (Mangifera indica), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), jambo or Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis), papaya (Carica papaya), Inga (Inga edulis), and banana (Musa paradisiaca). Animal prey includes long-horned grasshoppers (Tettigoniidae), cicadas, caterpillars, beetles, termites, and spiders. They eat more animal prey in the dry season when fruit is less abundant. They find their prey by searching among foliage and along branches and use stalk-and-pounce techniques. Double-toothed kites (Harpagus bidentatus) follow groups of Pied Tamarins during the day for periods of up to an hour, evidently to catch flushed cicadas.</p> <p>Breeding. In general, a single breeding female in each group produces twins once or twice a year, with birth peaks in March-April and December. In the wild, newborns have also been seen in May, June, and July. Gestation is c.160 days, and interbirth inter vals in captivity are 170-481 days (average 208 days).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Pied Tamarins begin their day shortly after sunrise at c.06:00 h, with alternating bouts of foraging for animal prey and feeding on fruits until about midday when they tend to rest. Feeding on fruit is less prevalent in the afternoon when they alternate resting and feeding until c.17:00 h, at which time they enter dense foliage and vine tangles to sleep.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Pied Tamarins are generally 1-12 individuals, although groups of up to 25 have been observed in forest patches in the suburbs of Manaus. It is possible that these large groups are a product of forest fragmentation and may only be temporary. Groups monitored for extended periods are quite stable, with a single breeding female, 1-2 adult males, and subadults, juveniles, and infants. Only minor changes in group composition occur with emigration (disappearance) and births. A group of 6-10 individuals, studied in the forested grounds of a hotel near the Rio Taruma-acu, used 12 ha during eleven months. In another forest fragment in the suburbs of Manaus, a group of eleven individuals occupied 17 ha. A home range of more than 100 ha was recorded in the much more extensive forest of Adolphe Ducke Forest Reserve, indicating considerably lower densities (1-1 groups/km?) than in the suburban forest fragments. Surveys there found 41 groups of 2-11 individuals, with a mean of 4-8 ind/group and a density of 4-8 ind/ km? or c.1 group/km?. They are found at elevations of 40-140 m on plateaus and slopes and in stream valley bottoms.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The distribution of the Pied Tamarin is centered on Manaus, a rapidly expanding city, with a population of more than 1,600,000. Deforestation is notable along the major highways (e.g. BR-174 to Boa Vista and AM-010 to Itacoatiara in the east). The continued expansion ofthe city is a major threat, with the forest diminishing and becoming increasingly fragmented, particularly during the last 30 years. The original distribution of the Pied Tamarin encompassed 7730 km? but 6540 km?* remained in 1999 and 6050 km? in 2009. The gradual retraction of its distribution and the expansion of that of the Midas Tamarin (S. midas), which is competitively replacing it, are important threats. Retraction ofits distribution is most notable in the east; in the early 1970s, Pied Tamrains could be found as far east as the Rio Uatuma, but by the early 1980s, they were only found as far as the town of Itacioatiara, and by 1998, the easternmost records were from the right bank of the Rio Urubu. The Midas Tamarin occurs at higher densities and tends to have larger social groups than the Pied Tamarin, and, in captivity, it is less susceptible to diseases. These attributes could enhance its competitive advantage over the Pied Tamarin, but the specific reasons for this apparent competitive exclusion are unknown. The Pied Tamarin occurs in protected areas including Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve, Rio Negro—-Sector Sul State Park (only the southernmost part, south of the Rio Cuieiras), and Margem Esquerda do Rio Negro State Environmental Protection Area (Sector Taruma-Acu-Taruma-Mirim). In the urban district of Manaus, it occurs in small reserves: Mindu Municipal Park, Mindu Springs Municipal Park, Sumauma State Park, Sauim-Castanheiras Wildlife Refuge, and five private reserves totaling 132 ha, along with the Taruma/Ponta Negra Environmental Protection Area. Other areas where it is protected include Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve, Walter Alberto Egler Reserve, and an area of the Centro de Instrucao de Guerra em Selva (CIGS) that still has a tenuous corridor connection to the almost totally isolated Ducke Reserve.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ayres et al. (1980, 1982), Coimbra-Filho (1987), Egler (1991a, 1991b, 1992, 1993), Epple et al. (2002), Gordo et al. (2008), Heistermann et al. (1987), Hershkovitz (1977), Price &amp; Feistner (2001), Rohe (2006), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Subira (1998a, 1998b, 2009), Vidal &amp; Cintra (2006), Wormell (1994, 2005), Wormell &amp; Feistner (1992), Wormell et al. (1996).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF5FFE4FAD2FD8A6D28E75F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF4FFE4FF38F87E670DE24A.text	DF668780FFF4FFE4FF38F87E670DE24A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus martinsi (Thomas 1912)	<div><p>39.</p> <p>Martins’s Bare-faced Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus martinsi</p> <p>French: Tamarin de Martins / German: Ockermanteltamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Martins Other common names: Martins's Tamarin (martinsi), Ocherous Bare-faced Tamarin (ochraceus)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Leontocebus martinsi Thomas, 1912,</p> <p>Faro, Para, Brazil.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. bicolor. The form ochraceus may be a hybrid S. martinsi x S. bicolor. Two subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution. S. m. martinst Thomas, 1912 — Brazilian Amazon, between the rios Nhamunda and Trombetas, N of the Rio Amazonas. S. m. ochraceus Hershkovitz, 1966 — Brazilian Amazon, between the rios Uatuma and Nhamunda, N of the Rio Amazonas.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21-28 cm, tail 34-42 cm; weight 400-600 g. The body of Martins’s Bare-faced Tamarin is uniformly brownish above from crown to tail base, paler on flanks and shoulders, buffy on limbs, and orange below. As in the Pied Tamarin (S. bicolor), the face and forepart of the crown are almost naked. The “Martins’s Tamarin” (S. m. martinsi) is dark agouti-brown above, with orange underparts and white hands and feet. There are blue spots on the ears, and the head is puce. There is no white on the ruff or nape. The “Ocherous Bare-faced Tamarin” (S. m. ochraceus) is paler and less distinctly agouti-banded than the Martins’s Tamarin, being generally yellowish-brown above, with golden-orange underparts. There are silvery to buffy tones on the ruff and nape, and the neck and base of the mantle are grayish-ocher or yellowish-gray.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland rainforest. Martins’s Bare-faced Tamarin adapts well to disturbed forest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Very little is known about Martins’s Bare-faced Tamarin; however, evidence is emerging that its distribution is smaller than supposed and it is suffering invasion of their forests and displacement by the Midas Tamarin (S. midas). With bauxite mining, construction of a shipping port, and spreading colonization and urbanization of the entire region by humans, Martins’s Bare-faced Tamarin may be Near Threatened. The Martins’s Tamarin occurs in Saraca-Taquera National Forest on the west bank of the Rio Trombetas. The Ocherous Bare-faced Tamarin probably occurs in Nhamunda State Park and Nhamunda State Environment Protection Area, Amazonas State.</p> <p>Bibliography. Coimbra-Filho (1987), Coimbra-Filho et al. (1997), Hershkovitz (1966, 1977), Oliveira, Loretto et al. (2009), Oliveira, Mendel et al. (2004), Rylands et al. (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF4FFE4FF38F87E670DE24A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF4FFE7FA37FD8A6BD9E1F2.text	DF668780FFF4FFE7FA37FD8A6BD9E1F2.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus inustus (Schwarz 1951)	<div><p>40.</p> <p>Mottled-face Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus inustus</p> <p>French: Tamarin a face marbrée / German: Marmorgesichttamarin / Spanish: Tamarin jaspeado Other common names: Mottle-faced Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Leontocebus midas inustus Schwarz, 1951,</p> <p>Tabocal, Amazonas, Brazil.</p> <p>J. Hernandez-Camacho and T. Defler in 1989 indicated the possibility of two subspecies of S. inustus in Colombia. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon and SE Colombia, between the upper Rio Negro and Rio Japura, W from opposite the Rio Padauari (64° W), N of the Rio Caqueta, E as far as the lower Rio Yari and the right bank of the Rio Mesay; it extends N through the Apaporis and Vaupés basins, possibly to the upper Rio Guaviare; N and W limits in Colombia are not known; not recorded in Venezuela.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21-26 cm, tail 33-41 cm; weight ¢.430 g (n = 11). One wild adult male weighed 500 g. The body and tail of the Mottled-face Tamarin are black except for chocolate-brown on the back and cinnamon on the flanks. The face is bare, except for some short white hairs covering the muzzle, with a lack of pigmentation on certain areas causing a blackish mottling effect on the otherwise pink surface. Ears are black and naked but occasionally have white patches. Genitals are naked and white.</p> <p>Habitat. Lowland terra firma forest, seasonally flooded forest or varzea (flooded for three to five months), mature forest, and second-growth forest around abandoned clearings. More than 50% of the home range of a group of Mottled-face Tamarins in interfluvial forests adjacent to the lower rios Caqueta and Apaporis (near La Pedrera, Comeyafu Indigenous Reserve 1° 17° S, 69° 34’ W) was secondary forest, and most of that was young (low) second-growth forest or “rastrojo bajo.” About 12% of its home range was cultivated by local people.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. During a short four-month study at Comefayu, near the rios Caqueta and Apaporis, Mottled-face Tamarins ate fruits from 22 tree species and the liana Mendoncia ovata (Acanthaceae), totaling 13 genera and twelve families—many of them pioneer species in secondary growth. Sweet juicy arils of Inga (Fabaceae) seeds (including cultivated I. edulis) were important in the diet during four months of the early and middle wet season. Fruits from Tapirira guianensis (Anacadiacaeae), Rollinia mucosa (Apocynaceae), Pseudolmedia laevis (Moraceae), Pouteria (Sapotaceae), Couma macrocarpa (Apocynaceae), and Pourouma (Urticaceae), eaten by marmosets and tamarins throughout the Amazon, also occurred in the diet of Mottled-face Tamarins. Small animal prey include orthopterans, small spiders, and ant larvae. Prey is found as they forage in the middle and lower levels of the forest, especially in rastrojo bajo, even as low as 0-5 m above the forest floor. The double-toothed kite (Harpagus bidentatus) will follows groups of Mottled-face Tamarin, presumably to catch insects that they flush.</p> <p>Breeding. In Colombia, newborn twins are seen in March-April (early wet season) and September.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Seven groups of Mottled-face Tamarins counted in Colombia had 3-7 individuals (mean 6, n = 7). Group sizes recorded in Amana Sustainable Development Reserve were smaller, averaging 2-7 individuals (n =4). During a four-month study, a group offive Mottled-face Tamarins used a home range of 35 ha. Mean daily movement during five days from dawn to dusk was 961 m (range 750-1100 m). Density in Comeyaft Indigenous Reserve near La Pedrera was 3-8 groups/km? and 19-6 ind/km®. Density on the upper Rio Jat was 3-3 ind/km?®.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Plots cultivated by local people, peasant crops, and small-scale logging have transformed much of the natural habitat of the Mottled-face Tamarin. Slash-and-burn is the prevalent agricultural practice in the region, but it is low impact when there are not too many humans. Rural populations, however, are growing considerably in some areas, including notably the interfluvium of the rios Caqueta and Apaporis, east to the mouth of the Rio Miriti where a very large proportion of the region’s indigenous population is concentrated (1-2 people/km?) and where numbers continue to increase through immigration. Much (60-70%) of the range of Mottled-face Tamarins in Colombia is within the boundaries of indigenous reserves. Mottled-face Tamarins are not hunted but are sometimes captured as pets. In Brazil, they occur in Amana Sustainable Development Reserve and western parts ofJau National Park. In Colombia, they may occur in Serrania de Chiribiquete National Natural Park and Nukak National Natural Reserve, and they have been studied in Comeyafui Indigenous Reserve on the left margin of the Rio Caqueta.</p> <p>Bibliography. Barnett et al. (2002), Castillo-Ayala &amp; Palacios (2007), Defler (2003b, 2004), Hershkovitz (1977), Hernadndez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Herndndez-Camacho &amp; Defler (1989), lwanaga (2004), Palacios et al. (2004), Rylands et al. (1993), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), de Souza et al. (2004), Valsecchi et al. (2010).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF4FFE7FA37FD8A6BD9E1F2	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF7FFE7FFD8FE236C82EDE9.text	DF668780FFF7FFE7FFD8FE236C82EDE9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus leucopus (Gunther 1877)	<div><p>41.</p> <p>White-footed Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus leucopus</p> <p>French: Tamarin a pieds blancs / German: WeikfulRtamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de pies blancos Other common names: Silvery-brown Bare-face Tamarin, Silvery-brown Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale leucopus Günther, 1877,</p> <p>Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia.</p> <p>Southernmost populations of S. leucopus tend to be darker, with dark stripes on forearms and shanks, and they may represent a distinct subspecies, but considered monotypic here.</p> <p>Distribution. NC Colombia, between the lower Rio Cauca and the middle Rio Magdalena, extending S along the W bank of the Magdalena at least as far as Mariquita; also on Mompos I and on some of the Is in the Magdalena.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22-29 cm (males) and 23-25 cm (females), tail 36— 42 cm (males) and 35-40 cm (females); weight c.462 g. The fur of the White-footed Tamarin is brownish-gray above with long whitish hair tips and a rusty-orange underside. It has a white brow and long dark brown hairs on the back of the neck, forming a ruff. Forearms, hands, and feet are whitish, and the tail is brown, with an occasional whitish tip. Facial skin is black and appears naked from a distance, but it is really covered with a generous amount of short silvery hairs on the cheeks and crown.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary, secondary lowland, and pre-montane rainforest up to elevations of 1500 m. The White-footed Tamarin is most often seen in the low and mid-canopy of the forest, butit favors edge habitats such as streamsides. It thrives in second-growth vegetation. Groups are able to exist in suburban areas with groves and small forest patches in gardens, where cultivated fruits are available.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The White-footed Tamarin eats fruits and flowers from at least 25 plants, including Anacardium excelsum, Spondias mombin, Mangifera indica, and Tapinira guianensis (all Anacardiaceae), Bursera simaruba and Protium nodulosum (Burseraceae), Ficus and Sorocea sprucei (Moraceae), Psidium guajava, Myrcia, and Eugenia (Myrtaceae), and Pouteria multiflora (Sapotacaeae). In suburban areas, they eat semi-cultivated fruits such as mango (Mangifera indica), papaya, guava, graviola (Annona muricata), avocado (Persea gratissima), bananas, jambo (Eugeniajambos), starfruit (Averrhoa carambola), Seville oranges (Citrus aurantium), and coconut and hibiscus flowers. A study of their feeding behavior in a small forest near the village of Mariquita in the Tolima Department found diets offruits, flowers, bark, and leaves; overall, 82-84% of their feeding time was spent eating fruits, 8-25% eating invertebrates, and less than 8% eating bark and flowers.</p> <p>Breeding. One female White-footed Tamarin breeds in each group. Newborns have been seen in September.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. A study in the suburbs of Mariquita found four groups of eleven, seven, 10-12, and two individuals, occupying a 120-ha secondary forest patch. The group of eleven individuals occupied a home range of 17-7 ha in July-December. Two additional groups of five and six individuals lived in the back gardens of a housing estate. The group offive occupied a home range of only 0-7 ha. Daily movements for the forest group were 783-2387 m. The urban group traveled 224-612 m/day. Densisties of White-footed Tamarins in seven forest fragments of 21- 1246 ha were 37 ind/km? (21-ha forest) to 149 ind/km? (264-ha forest) and higher than 100 ind/km? in four of the forests. Density in the largest forest (1246 ha) was 54 ind/ km”. These densities were higher than have been recorded for any other tamarin species. Although these high densities may well be an artifact of packing—refugees from destruction in the surrounding forest—, it is evident that the White-footed Tamarin is able to tolerate them, perhaps related to the increased food availability from secondary succession or perhaps to density compensation (i.e. loss of other larger primate species from the forest patches, reducing competition for resources). Other factors might include time since the forest was isolated; numbers may stabilize at a lowerlevel following the initial influx as the forest was isolated, or may even gradually fall due to lack of dispersal and its genetic consequences in a small population. Another factor is the extent to which the population is hunted (for trade) at each site.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Most of the distribution of the White-footed Tamarin has been largely deforested, and only a few scattered populations still survive. Nevertheless, it would seem that it is exceptionally hardy and adaptable, to the point where, in places that have been extensively logged,it is often the only primate to be seen. It also is able to thrive in forest patches in urban areas, benefitting from cultivated fruit trees. Concerns regarding the loss of forest and its exploitation for the pet trade have led to a conservation program and action initiated in 2006 by the Colombian non-governmental organization, Fundacion Biodiversa Colombia, encompassing education and environmental awareness, population surveys, ecological and behavioral research in the wild, and a captive breeding program in collaboration with the European Zoo Association.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bernstein et al. (1976), Cuartas-Calle (2001), Cuervo et al. (1986), Defler (2003b, 2004), Green (1978), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949, 1977), Moore &amp; Cheverud (1992), Morales-Jiménez (2008), Poveda (2000), Poveda &amp; Sanchez (2004), Roncancio et al. (2011), Rueda &amp; Ordonez (2009), Rylands (1993a), Skinner (1991), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Vargas &amp; Solano (1996).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF7FFE7FFD8FE236C82EDE9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF7FFE6FAD1FEEA6867E1F3.text	DF668780FFF7FFE6FAD1FEEA6867E1F3.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus oedipus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>42.</p> <p>Cotton-top Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus oedipus</p> <p>French: Tamarin pinché / German: Lisztaffchen / Spanish: Tamarin de cabeza blanca Other common names: Cotton-headed Tamarin, Cottontop Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia oedipus Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>America. Restricted by A. Humboldt in 1812 to Colombia, and further restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1949 to the lower Rio Sinu, Cordoba, Colombia.</p> <p>Formerly included S. geoffroyi as a subspecies. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NW Colombia, between the Rio Atrato and the lower Rio Cauca (W of the Rio Cauca and the Mompos I) and Rio Magdalena (from the Uraba region, W of the Rio Cauca), and NE Choco Department, E of the Rio Atrato, from sea level to ¢.400 m. Small, introduced populations occur in Tayrona National Natural Park (15,000 ha) and on some small Is near Cartagena and in Panama, outside its natural distribution.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—-body 21-26 cm,tail 33-40 cm; weight mean 417-6 g (males, n = 37) and 404-1 g (females, n = 29). The name “cotton-top” refersto the species’ long white topknot and mane. The Cotton-top Tamarin is mainly agouti gray-brown above, with a white stomach, forearms, legs, hands, and feet, with reddish patches on thighs and rump. The tail is red on its proximal one-half, then dark brown. The extent and tone of the reddish color on thighs and proximate part of the tail varies. The face and ears are black and bare, although covered with fine white hairs giving them a grizzled appearance. Individuals from the Rio San Jorge and the region of Zambrano, Bolivar Departmant, tend to be yellowish rather than white.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary lowland evergreen dry deciduous forest, scrubland, and forest edge. Social behavior, diet, and home range of the Cotton-top Tamarin were studied by P. Neyman in an isolated dry forest of 600 ha at Tolu in the north of the Sucre Department, in 1973-1975. Long-term field studies have been conducted by A. Savage, H. Giraldo, L.. Hernando Soto, and colleagues from 1988 to 1996 in Estacion Experimental de Fauna Silvestre de Coloso, adjacent to Reserva Forestal Protectora Serrania de Coraza-Montes de Maria (4000 ha), one of of the principal refuges of the Cotton-top Tamarin in the northern Atlantic coast of Colombia. Subsequently, in 1999, they established a long-term study site at Hacienda El Ceibal, a 300-ha forested area on privately owned land in Santa Catalina, Bolivar Department.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of the Cotton-top Tamarin include fruits of trees, vines, and epiphytes; new leaves and leaf buds; nectar; gums, notably of Enterolobium cyclocarpum; insects; frogs; and lizards. Neyman’s two-year study recorded Cotton-top tamarins eating fruits of 48 species in 28 families. No information was recorded concerning seasonal changes or the relative importance of different foods in the diet, but fruits from species of Moraceae and Flacourtiaceae were common, and the most important species included Inga punctata (Fabaceae), two species of Ficus (Moraceae), Anacardium excelsum and Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae), and Quararibea (Bombacaceae). Cotton-top Tamarins forage for animal prey typically in the middle and lower canopy.</p> <p>Breeding. With a mean of 183 days, gestation of the Cotton-top Tamarin is relatively long compared with other callitrichids. In captivity, females reach sexual maturity at c.84 weeks, and testicular growth of males is completed at c.76 weeks. In the wild, they typically produce one litter of twins once a year. Mortality is highest in the first week, and infant survival for any particular breeding female increases over successive litters. Birth peaks of Cotton-top Tamarins occurred in March-May at Sucre and in March-June at the Coloso site,at the onset of the rainy season when fruit production is highest. Females become sexually receptive 4-5 weeks after giving birth and can become pregnant again. The ovarian cycle is 18 days. Thus, females can potentially produce young twice a year. As in Geoffroy’s Tamarin (S. geoffroyi), many female Cotton-top Tamarins, although pregnant, often eventually fail to give birth. This phenomenon may be associated with a seasonallack of food (unpredictability) or, for example, poor conditions of the mother for any other reason. As in saddle-back tamarins, post-pubescent female Cotton-top Tamarins are reproductively suppressed by the breeding female in the group andfail to show normal ovarian cycling while they remain in their natal family group. Suppressed females also have low rates of scent marking, and their scent glands are lightly pigmented and excrete little sebum. Only when these females leave their natal group and are in the company of a novel male does ovarian cycling occur, stimulating reproductive behavior. The mating system of the Cotton-top Tamarin is variable. Monogamy is evident when there is only one breeding pair, but presence of more than one adult male in stable groups indicates the possibility of polyandry. Polygynous groups also occur, especially following immigration of a male stranger, but they are not stable. Studies in captivity have shown that Cotton-top Tamarins exhibit sex-specific aggression toward unfamiliar conspecifics and there is strong reproductive competition between females. In the Coloso study of eight groups during five years, only twice were two females found to be pregnant in the same group following entry of a new male into the group. In one case, only one female eventually gave birth, and in the second, neither female produced infants. Reproductive tenure of females in groups where they were the only breeding female was a minimum of 30 months. Of 15 observed emigrations, both males and femalesleft the group, and they were more frequently adults than juveniles; all moved just once to join a neighboring group. Males frequently left their groups to enter other groupss where the resident male had died.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Cotton-top Tamarins at Sucre begin their daily activities quite late, up to an hour and 20 minutes after sunrise, and forage and take short rests after 07:30 h.</p> <p>Inactive bouts are typically 30-60 minutes long, but they can last as long as two hours at midday. During the day, they travel 1500-1900 m and visit all parts of their homes range in 2-3 days. At ¢.16:30 h, they become quieter and more cohesive as a group while they move to their sleeping site. They spend an hour or so sitting quietly or foraging around their sleeping site until they retire, generally at 16:30-18:30 h. Sleeping sites include large branches, near to or at the fork of the tree trunk, low trees with dense crowns, and dense liana festoons.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Cotton-top Tamarins contain 2-15 individuals and often more than one adult male. The study in Sucre by Neyman monitored six groups that had 3-13 individuals, with 2-6 adults and never more than two juveniles. Groups were quite unstable in their composition, with numerous immigrations, individuals leaving or disappearing and reappearing, and groups splitting up. Eight groups monitored during five years at the Coloso field site in northern Colombia had 2-10 individuals (mean 5-8), with no bias in the sex ratio. In contrast to groups at Sucre, these groups were quite stable. Two of the groups at Sucre had home ranges of 7-8 ha each, and the home range of a third was 10 ha. Home range overlap was 20-30%. From these numbers, density was estimated at 30-180 ind/ km?, probably an artificially high number related to the forest's isolation (surrounded by pasture) and the reason for the instability of the social groups. Encounters between groups at home range boundaries occurred every few days. They involved general agitation, chases, rasp vocalizations (when in close contact), exchanges of long calls, whistle-like “dip” calls (about a one-second-long whistle with a cadence), chasing, and fights (“grappling”). Interactions were between adults; juveniles did not take part in these encounters.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The geographic distribution of the Cotton-top Tamarin has long been densely inhabited by people; from indigenous pre-Colombian populations to today’s widespread villages, towns, roads,cattle ranches, and farms. Most ofits former habitat has been deforested for cattle pasture, and remaining populations are confined to isolated forest fragments. In 1977, Neyman estimated that 75% of the forest in its original distribution had been cleared for agriculture and pasture and the remainder was mostly small isolated forest patches. Preferring secondary forest, Cotton-top Tamarins do benefit somewhat from selective logging, and their numbers are believed to have increased in some areas. Nevetheless, years of capture for biomedical research and the pet trade, habitat loss, and an extremely limited distribution have combined to put them at serious risk. Between 1960 and 1975, 30,000-40,000 Cotton-top Tamarins were captured and exported from Baranquilla, Colombia, before the country prohibited trade (except a limited number for biomedical research) in 1973. It is believed that at least one-third or more that were captured perished prior to export. The Cotton-top Tamarin is still used in biomedical experimentation, particularly for research on Epstein-Barr virus, colitis, and colon cancer. In 1998, the captive population was estimated at 2000-3000 individuals. A multidisciplinary in situ conservation program called Proyecto Titi was established in 1985, combining field research, education initiatives, and community programs to make conservation of natural resources economically feasible for local communities in the region. It began in Colos6 in 1987, and it moved to Santa Catalina at Hacienda El Ceibal in 1999. The project generated a Colombian non-profit organization, Fundacion Proyecto Titi, to support conservation and research activities to protect the region, using the Cotton-top Tamarin as a flagship species. A survey of Cotton-top Tamarins in the wild was done from October 2005 to February 2007. A prior analysis using remote sensing covered 27% of the remaining habitat (4019 km? in 43 patches of 18-1735 ha) within the historical distribution of the Cotton-top Tamarin and indicated that 14,534 km? of suitable forest remained. In this area, Cotton-top Tamarins were found in only 99 km?, providing an estimate of only 2045 individuals (range 1587-2634). Assuming comparable densities in the nonsurveyed areas, ¢.7394 wild cotton-top tamarins remain in Colombia. In the southern part ofits distribution, Cotton-top Tamarins occur in Paramillo National Natural Park (460,000 ha established in 1977). This area is considered to be the last major stronghold for the Cotton-top Tamarin, but its integrity is threatened because of the construction of two hydroelectric dams, Urra I and Urra II, on the rios Sinu and San Jorge. Twenty percent of the forest in this Park was lost between 1990 and 2000, and current estimates are that less than 58% of the forest remains. In the 7460-ha Montes de Maria Forest Reserve, 70% of the forest has been lost, and likewise 71% of the forest in the 1000-ha Los Colorados Fauna and Flora Sanctuary had been destroyed—both areas have Cotton-top Tamarins. Habitat destruction and capture for the illegal pet trade are ongoing, and urgent conservation measures are required to prevent the extinction of the Cotton-top Tamarin in the wild.</p> <p>Bibliography. Achenbach &amp; Snowdon (1998, 2002), Bedard et al. (1978), Belcher et al. (1988), Brand (1981), Cheverud (1996), Cheverud et al. (1994), Cleveland &amp; Snowdon (1982, 1984), Defler (2003b, 2004), Elowson et al. (1991), Epple et al. (1988), Feistner &amp; Price (1990), French &amp; Cleveland (1984), French &amp; Snowdon (1981), French et al. (1984), Ghazanfar et al. (2001), Ginther et al. (2002), Giraldo et al. (2003), Hampton etal. (1966), Heistermann et al. (1989), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Defler (1985, 1989), Hershkovitz (1949, 1977), Kirkwood (1983), Kirkwood &amp; Underwood (1984), Mastet al. (1993), McGrew &amp; McLuckie (1986), McGrew &amp; Webster (1995), Miller et al. (2004), Moore &amp; Cheverud (1992), Moore et al. (1991), Neyman (1977), Price (1990, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1992d, 1993), Price &amp; McGrew (1990, 1991), Roush &amp; Snowdon (2001), Rylands (1993a), Sanchez et al. (1999), Savage (1990), Savage, Dronzek &amp; Snowdon (1987), Savage, Giraldo, Blumer et al. (1993), Savage, Giraldo, Soto, Garcia &amp; Nassar-Montoya (2003), Savage, Giraldo, Soto &amp; Snowdon (1996), Savage, Guillen et al. (2010), Savage, Shideler et al. (1997), Savage, Snowdon et al. (1996), Savage, Soto, Lamilla &amp; Guillen (2009), Savage, Soto, Medina et al. (2009), Savage, Thomas et al. (2010), Savage, Ziegler &amp; Snowdon (1988), Savage, Zirofsky et al. (1996), Skinner (1991), Snowdon &amp; Pickhard (1999), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988), Snowdon, Cleveland &amp; French (1983), Snowdon, Ziegler &amp; Widowski (1993), Tardif (1984), Tardif, Carson &amp; Gangaware (1986, 1990, 1992), Tardif, Richter &amp; Carson (1984), Washabaugh &amp; Snowdon (1998), Weiss et al. (2001), Widowski, Porter et al. (1992), Widowski, Ziegler et al. (1990), Ziegler, Bridson et al. (1987), Ziegler, Epple et al. (1993), Ziegler, Savage et al. (1987), Ziegler, Widowski et al. (1990), Ziegler, Wittwer &amp; Snowdon (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF7FFE6FAD1FEEA6867E1F3	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF6FFE1FA3CFE21669EE28C.text	DF668780FFF6FFE1FA3CFE21669EE28C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saguinus geoffroyi (Pucheran 1845)	<div><p>43.</p> <p>Geoffroy’s Tamarin</p> <p>Saguinus geoffroyi</p> <p>French: Tamarin de Geoffroy / German: Perlickentamarin / Spanish: Tamarin de Panama Other common names: Red-crested Bare-face Tamarin, Rufous-naped Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hapale geoffroyi Pucheran, 1845,</p> <p>Panama. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1949 to the Canal Zone.</p> <p>Formerly considered a subspecies of S. oedipus. Pelage of S. geoffroyi tends to be paler in the northern part of its distribution. Tamarins from the Choco, Rio Salaqui (a tributary of the Rio Atrato), have larger, differently proportioned skulls, a chestnut rather than burnt umber crown and nape, and buffy yellow (instead of pure white) underparts, and were named Oedipomidas salaquiensis by D. G. Elliot in 1912—currently considered ajunior synonym. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. C &amp; E Panama (E of the Azuero Peninsula) and NW Colombia, in Panama to a little W of the Canal Zone and in Colombia along the Pacific coast, S as far as the Rio San Juan.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 32-42 cm; weight mean 486-4 g (males, n =53) and 507-5 g (females, n = 41). Geoffroy’s Tamarin is similar in appearance to the Cotton-top Tamarin (S. oedipus). Its forearms are white, the underside is pale yellow, and the nape is dark reddish. Lower back, upper arms, and legs are dappled with black and yellow. The proximal one-third of the tail is reddish, and the remainder is black. Instead of the distinctive head plume of the Cotton-top Tamarin, Geoffroy’s Tamarins have a short, wedge-shaped, white mid-frontal crest. The face is black and bare, with very sparse white hairs on the cheeks and brows. Sexes are very similar in appearance, but females have larger and more developed circumgenital and suprapubic glands.</p> <p>Habitat. Primary and secondary rainforest and dry deciduous forest. Geoffroy’s Tamarins prefer secondary growth (early seral stages of regrowth), with large trees and a dense understory. They forage for animal prey in dense vegetation at heights of 2-15 m above the ground. The first study of Geoffroy’s Tamarins was done by G. Dawson in the early 1970s in a dry forest at the former Rodman Depot, west of the Panama Canal on the Pacific slope of Panama. P. Garber subsequently studied the same population in the late 1970s. N. Lindsay carried out a short study ofits behavior and ecology in second-growth forest in the San Blas region of the Caribbean coast of Panama in 1979. C. Skinner carried out surveys in 30 locations within its Panamian distribution in 1983 and noted that most sightings were associated with secondary growth and often near agricultural areas. They were observed from sea level to 350 m in forests of both the humid Caribbean coast and the drier Pacific coast.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Fruits eaten by Geoffroy’s Tamarins are generally small and succuclent, including those of Cecropia (infructescences) and Pourouma (Urticaceae), Ficus (Moraceae), Annona (Annonaceae), Inga (Fabaceae), Miconia (Melastomataceae), and Spondias, Mangifera, and Anacardium (Anacardiaceae). They eat flowers (nectar) of Byrsonima crassifolia (Malpighiaceae), Cassia moschata (Fabaceae), and Luehea seemannii (Malvaceae) and leaf buds of Cedrela (Meliaceae). During the wet season, gums of Anacardium excelsum and Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) are also a major part of the diet and can make up 14% of their feeding time (insects 39% and fruits 38%). Gums are believed to be important for their calcium content, a mineral largely lacking in insects and fruit. Their animal prey is largely arthropods (mainly Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera) and small vertebrates (mainly lizards). They also eat bird eggs. Their foraging techniques are based on stealth and pounce while moving on thin supports of 5-10 cm in circumference; feeding drops significantly on larger branches, which they tend to use for travel and resting.</p> <p>Breeding. Pregnant female Geoffroy’s Tamarins and newborns can be seen throughout the year, but most births occur in March—June, with the peak in April-May (early wet season when fruiting peaks). Many females are pregnant in May-June, but there is no corresponding birth peak in August-September, indicating that fetuses are resorbed or aborted.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Geoffroy’s Tamarins begin their day shortly after sunrise, and they can be active for as little as seven hours, curtailed by rain, or as long as nearly 14 hours. Average duration of activity is about eleven hours, longer than in many other callitrichids, and is probably associated with a relative scarcity of insect prey and fruit in the dry forests where they occur. Studies at the Rodman site found that Geoffroy’s Tamarins traveled and foraged mostly in early morning, with a lull in activities at midday. Sleeping sites were generally in tall, broad-crowned trees at heights of ¢.16 m or in dense vine tangles lower in the forest at c.7 m above the ground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mean size of 71 groups of Geoffroy’s Tamarins at the Rodman site was 6-9 individuals (range 4-9) including infants. Five groups closely monitored had an average of 2-4 adult males, 2-1 adult females, one immature male, and 0-7 immature females (mean size 6-2). Lowland groups of Geoffroy’s Tamarins were quite stable, but upland groups, in considerably drier and more deciduous forest, were less stable, with higher emigration, immigration, and the disappearance of mainly immature individuals. Home range of a lowland group was 26 ha, 13% of which overlapped with three other groups. An upland group in the drier forest had a larger range of more than 32 ha, at least 83% of which overlapped with five other groups. The lowland group defended its home range, but the upland group did not. Reasons for this are believed to lie in the reduced insect biomass and more seasonal, unstable, and unpredictable nature of food sources in the drier forest, making it difficult to establish a fixed home range and causing lower infant survival. Adult Geoffroy’s Tamarins lose weight in the dry season. Daily movements average 2000 m, and daily home ranges were ¢.9 ha. Within their home range, individuals preferred low brush and denser vegetation of the forest edge and tended to avoid the more xeric and open-canopied mesic forest. Densities from various localities in Panama in 1983 ranged from 0-4 groups/km? (Chagres River Watershed) to 5-3 groups/km?* (Pacific coast, west of the Panama Canal). The Tayra (Eira barbara) has been observed preying on Geoffroy’s Tamarins.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Geoffroy’s Tamarin has a relatively restricted distribution and is threatened in many areas by widespread deforestation over the past 50 years.It is, however, generally adaptable and able to coexist quite closely with humans. Geoffroy’s Tamarins are even found in a park in Panama City. In Panama,it is frequently hunted and captured for the pet trade, and trapping has been reported west of the Rio Atrato in Colombia. It occurs in numerous protected areas in Panama and in Los Katios National Natural Park in Colombia.</p> <p>Bibliography. Barbosa et al. (1988), Dawson (1976, 1977, 1979), Dawson &amp; Dukelow (1976), Elliott (1912), Garber (1980, 19844, 1984b, 1993a, 1993b), Garber &amp; Kitron (1997), Garber &amp; Sussman (1984), Hershkovitz (1949, 1977), Lindsay (1980), Moore &amp; Cheverud (1992), Moynihan (1970), Nelson (1975), Rasmussen (1998), Rasmussen &amp; Broekema (2003), Rylands (1993b), Rylands et al. (2006), Skinner (1984, 1985, 1991), Snowdon &amp; Soini (1988).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF6FFE1FA3CFE21669EE28C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF0FFE3FF3FF7DC66AEE641.text	DF668780FFF0FFE3FF3FF7DC66AEE641.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Leontopithecus rosalia Linnaeus 1766	<div><p>44.</p> <p>Golden Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Leontopithecus rosalia</p> <p>French: Tamarin-lion doré / German: Goldgelbes Lowenaffchen / Spanish: Titi lebn dorado</p> <p>Taxonomy. Simia rosalia Linnaeus, 1766,</p> <p>Brazil. Restricted by A. P. M. Wied-Neuwied in 1826 to the coast between 22° S and 23° S, from the Cabo de Sao Tomé to the municipality of Mangaratiba, and further restricted by C. Carvalho in 1965 to the right bank ofthe Rio Sao Joao, Rio de Janeiro State.</p> <p>Leontopithecus was formerly believed to comprise three subspecies (rosalia, chrysomelas, and chrysopygus), but a comparative study ofcraniodental morphologyin the genus by A. L.. Rosenberger and A. F. Coimbra-Filho in 1984 concluded that they are heterogeneous and individually distinctive with a non-clinal distribution of characters andthat the three taxa then known should be considereddistinct species. A comparative study oftheir long calls also confirmed the distinctiveness ofthe three species. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Brazil (Rio de Janeiro State), originally the majority ofthe lowland coastal region ofthe State below elevations of 300 m; today largely restricted to two municipalities Silva Jardim and Cabo Frio.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 26-33 cm, tail 32-40 cm; weight 710 cm (males) and 795 g (females). The Golden Lion Tamarin is entirely covered by a coat of golden-orange with the exception oftheface, whichis naked and has a pale purplish tone. There is the occasional patch of orange, brown, or black coloration onthe tail and forepaws.</p> <p>Habitat. Remnant primary and secondary coastal lowlandforest; occasionally reported from cultivated and secondary regrowth forest. The Golden Lion Tamarin prefers middle and upperlayers ofthe canopy, usually 3-10 m abovetheforest floor. Research onits ecology and behavior in the wild has been ongoing since 1983 in Poco das Antas Biological Reserve an isolated lowlandforest that is largely degraded with little mature old growth left. There, Golden Lion Tamarins prefer swamp (particularly for animal prey) and hilltop forest. Although their sleeping sites are often locatedin hillside forest, they otherwise tendto avoid these areas where foraging microhabitats such as palm crowns, bromeliads, and lianas are uncommon. In 1994-1997, Golden Lion Tamarins were successfully introducedin a forest just to the north in Uniao Biological Reserve; there the forest is better preserved and, as in Poco das Antas, Golden Lion Tamarins prefer swamp andlowland forest, abundant in lianas and bromeliads where they like to forage. They use hillside forest mostly for their sleeping sites.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Golden Lion Tamarins eat fruits (generally small, soft and sweet, black, purple, yellow, and red), nectar, gums, and small animals. At Poco das Antas, its diet is 78-4%ripe fruits, 5:6% unripe fruits, 1-5%nectar and gum, 13-6%animal prey, and 0-9%the milk of unripe Astrocaryum (Arecaceae) nuts. Nectaris eaten mainly from Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) that they find in the swampy areas but also Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae). Species supplying gum include Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) and Mimosa bimucronata (Mimosoidae). They eat fruits from 63 species in 23 families. Diets of the Golden Lion Tamarins at Uniao were similar: 79-6% fruits, 15-4%animal prey, and 5% flowers and nectar; they used more than 97 species in 21 families. Despite the large numberofspecies found in diets at Uniao, only a few species accounted for the majority ofthe diet through the year. At Poco das Antas, 21 species accounted for 89%ofthe plant part ofthe diet of eight groups of Golden Lion Tamarins during a year ofstudy. At Uniao, seven species accounted for 56% of the feeding observations for a year: Miconia latecrenata (Melastomataceae), Sarcaulus brasiliensis (Sapotaceae), Cecropia (two species) and Coussapoa (Urticaceae), Eugenia (Myrtaceae), and S. globulifera. Golden Lion Tamarins disperse a significant amount of seeds fromthe fruits they eat. At Uniao, seeds from 76 species overall (78%ofthe fruits in their diet) are ingested and defecated, most of them 10-200 m away from the parent plants. Regarding to animal prey, they forage principally for arthropods and small vertebrates in specific microhabitats, including tree bark, vines, leaflitter accumulations in the crowns ofpalm trees, and mostly epiphytic tank bromeliads, which collect leaves, debris, water, and a distinctive and abundant fauna between their leafaxils.</p> <p>Breeding. Female Golden Lion Tamarins give birth to twins once, occasionally twice, a year. Mating occurs in August—March. Gestation is short compared with other callitrichids (125-132 days), and most births occur in September—November during the warm wet season when fruit is most abundant. Infants are carried constantly, and mostly by the mother, for the first three weeks, and for the majority ofthe time until eight weeks. By ten weeks ofage, they spend most oftheir time off the backs oftheir carriers. All group members carry young, and when young begin eating solid food, they provision them with food, particularly at 8-20 weeks old. Interbirth intervals are c.194 days, and the ovarian cycle is 18-19 days. Generally only one female breeds in each group, but non-breeding adult females show normal ovarian cycles. Reproductive inhibition ofsubordinate females by the dominant breeding female is behavioral and evidently not through suppression of ovulation, asis the case for marmosets and tamarins. Biannual monitoring ofsocial groups of Golden Lion Tamarins in Poco das Antas Biological Reserve has shown that ¢.70% of them have more than one adult male. In ¢.40% of the groups, these extra males are not sons or brothers of the breeding female and are potential breeders, indicating polyandrous mating on the part of the breeding female. The large majority of groups in the Reserve have only one breeding female, but in ¢.10% of groups, two females breed—mother and daughter in 75% of these cases. An incest taboo means that daughters do not mate with their fathers; when daughters breed, it is because their fathers have been replaced by another male or a second unrelated male has entered the group. Annual reproductive success of breeding subordinate females is lower (less than 50%) than that of the dominant female, and when the subordinate female is successful in bringing up her young, sheis typically the daughter of the dominant female. When a subordinate female becomes pregnant in groups where the only resident male is her father,it is suspected that the pregnancy results from a male in a neighboring group.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Golden Lion Tamarins are active for c.10-11 hours/day. They become active and stay active longer in the warm rainy season when days are longer. In the cold dry season when both insects and fruit tend to be scarcer, they leave their sleeping sites later and return to them earlier. A year long study of eight groups at Poco das Antas showed that they spent 54-73% of their day resting or stationary, 8-23% eating fruit or plant exudates, 6-12% foraging for animal prey, 7-11% traveling, and 3-5% feeding on animal prey. At Uniao, Golden Lion Tamarins spent 32% of their time traveling, 40% resting and stationary, 9% eating fruit, 12% foraging for animal prey, and 7% in miscellaneous other activities. Differences among groups and between the two sites reflect differences in dispersion, abundance, and quality of foods and foraging sites. Golden Lion Tamarins in Uniao had a lower density and larger home ranges than in other areas. Much of the morning was spent feeding and traveling; they fed on fruit early in the day, and resting peaks occurred around midday. Tree holes (in living trees) are the preferred sleeping sites of all lion tamarins; in a 14-year record of sleeping site use by Golden Lion Tamains in Poco das Antas, 64% were tree holes, and tree holes accounted for ¢.85% ofsleeping sites used more than eight times by any group. Othersleeping sites include bamboo, vine tangles, and bromeliads.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of the Golden Lion Tamarin are 2-11 individuals (average 5-4). Groups generally comprise a single breeding pair, and their offspring; groups as such are typically kin. Groups are quite stable, and immigration and emigration events are infrequent. At Poco das Antas, groups experienced an immigration event once every 2-9 years, on average. In 33% of these immigration events, more than one individual entered the group; in all these cases, these were males, and in most, brother duos or fathers and sons. Many of these immigration events follow the loss of one or both of the resident breeding adults. An individual joining, not replacing, adult breeding residents is very rare—once every eleven years on average, and they are nearly always dispersing males, not females. As such, groups of Golden Lion Tamarin have very limited immigration. Lone individuals and singlesex groups are driven away when they approach stable family groups. By three years of age, 60% of the offspring emigrate and only 10% remain in their natal group to four years of age. Most of those that remain become the resident breeder in the group. Females disperse when they are about two years old, males a little later at about two years and three months. Males often move into neighboring groups and situations where they have the potential to breed, which is rarely the case for females. Females become floaters and evidently suffer a higher mortality when dispersing. With more than one adult male, groups are potentially polyandrous, but it is believed that one dominant male monopolizes paternity. Home ranges of Golden Lion Tamarins at Poco das Antas were 21-73 ha (average 45 ha). The relatively high density at Poco das Antas—12 ind/ km? (2 groups/km?*)—is believed to be near or at saturation. With a density of 3-5 ind/ km? (0-5 groups/km?), the introduced population at Uniao (groups translocated from other parts of the species’ distribution) has larger home ranges, 65-229 ha (average 150 ha). Daily movements in the two forests reflect different home range sizes, 1339 m/day on average in Poco das Antas and 1873 m/day in Uniao. Itis possible that groups in Uniao will occupy smaller home ranges as the population increases, but the difference may also reflect variation in distribution and abundance of food resources.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Golden Lion Tamarin is threatened by widespread historical loss of habitat through conversion to agriculture, principally cattle-ranching, and urbanization. Alerted to their rapid decline by A. F. Coimbra-Filho in Brazil and R. A. Mittermeier internationally, a historic meeting was held in 1972 in the National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, called “Saving the Lion Marmoset.” This meeting resulted in the establishment of an effective, exemplary, captive management program by D. G. Kleiman, and eventually the launching of the Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program in 1983, which comprised a spectrum of conservation initiatives including captive (Kleiman) and long-term field research (J. Dietz), management of the Poco das Antas Biological Reserve created for the species in 1974 through the efforts of Coimbra-Filho and A. Magnanini in 1968, reintroduction of captive bred lion tamarins (B. Beck), and an environmental education program for the region (L. A. Dietz). The program was a partnership of the National Zoological Park, Centro de Primatologia do Rio Janeiro (CPR]J), and thefirst conservation non-governmental organization in Brasil, Fundacao Brasileira para a Conservacao da Natureza, Rio de Janeiro. From 1984 to 2000, 159 lion tamarins were introduced initially in the Poco das Antas reserve and later into privately owned forest patches in the vicinity. More than 100 zoos were involved, and after 21 years, descendants of captive Golden Lion Tamarins total 589 individuals in 87 groups. In 1991-1992, C. Kierulff carried out a population survey through the entire distribution of the Golden Lion Tamarin and estimated a population of 1000 individuals in 154 km? of forest. After locating twelve isolated and threatened groups in nine localities from 1994 to 1998, Kierulff translocated six of the groups (43 individuals) to an unoccupied forest that is now Uniao Biological Reserve. In 2006, the population at Uniao was more than 220 individuals in 30 groups, and more than 200 births were registered in twelve years. The most recent population estimate for the Golden Lion Tamarin (2008) was 1600 individuals. From the inception, the work was guided by an international conservation and management committee, created in 1981 for the management of the global captive population, but subsequently it was endorsed and is now managed through the Brazilan government to encompass all conservation and research initiatives for the Golden Lion Tamarin. Today, conservation is lead by the Golden Lion Tamarin Association (“Associacao Mico-LLeao-Dourado”) based in the Poco das Antas reserve, and its present challenges include increasing the forest available for the species and managing the widespread presence of introduced marmosets, the Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) and the Black-tufted-ear Marmoset (C. penicillata). Densities of these hardy marmosets are higher than Golden Lion Tamarins in the forests they invade, and they are a threat through competition and, potentially, disease transmission. The greatest imminent threat is the expansion of a population of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins (L. chrysomelas), introduced into a forest patch in the suburbs of Niteroi (first noticed in 2002). In 2009, they numbered 107 in 15 groups and were found only 50 km from where the Golden Lion Tamarin occurs. A major program is underway to capture them because they could displace or hybridize with Golden Lion Tamarins.</p> <p>Bibliography. Baker &amp; Dietz (1996), Baker et al. (2002), Bales et al. (2001), Ballou et al. (2002), Bridgewater (1972), Brown &amp; Mack (1978), Coimbra-Filho (1969, 1977, 1981), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1973, 1977b), Franklin et al. (2007), French &amp; Stribley (1985), French, Bales et al. (2003), French, De Vleeschouwer et al. (2002), French, Pissinatti &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1996), Hankerson et al. (2007), Hershkovitz (1977), Holst et al. (2006), Kierulff (2000, 2010), Kierulff &amp; Procépio de Oliveira (1996), Kierulff &amp; Rylands (2003), Kierulff, Procépio de Oliveira et al. (2002), Kierulff, Raboy et al. (2002), Kierulff, Ruiz-Miranda et al. (2012), Kleiman &amp; Mallinson (1998), Kleiman &amp; Rylands (2002), Kleiman, Beck et al. (1986), Kleiman, Hoage &amp; Green (1988), Lapenta &amp; Procopio de Oliveira (2008), Lapenta et al. (2003), Miller &amp; Dietz (2005), Padua et al. (2002), Peres (1989a, 1989b), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Pissinatti et al. (2002), Procépio-de-Oliveira et al. (2008), Rambaldi et al. (2002), Rapaport &amp; Ruiz-Miranda (2006), Rosenberger &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1984), Ruiz-Miranda, Affonso et al. (2006), Ruiz-Miranda, Beck et al. (2010), Rylands (1993c), Snowdon et al. (1986), Tardif, Santos et al. (2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF0FFE3FF3FF7DC66AEE641	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF3FFE2FADDF98B69F6E84A.text	DF668780FFF3FFE2FADDF98B69F6E84A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Leontopithecus chrysomelas (Kuhl 1820)	<div><p>45.</p> <p>Golden-headed Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Leontopithecus chrysomelas</p> <p>French: Tamarin-lion a téte dorée / German: Goldkopf-Lowenaffchen / Spanish: Titi lebn de cabeza dorada</p> <p>Taxonomy. Midas chrysomelas Kuhl, 1820,</p> <p>Brazil, forests of the rios Ilhéos, Pardo, and Belmonte. Restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1977 to Ribeirao das Minhocas, left bank of upper Rio dos Ilhéus, upper Bahia State.</p> <p>The lion tamarins were formerly considered to be subspecies of L. rosalia, but a comparative study of craniodental morphology of the genus by A. Rosenberger and A. F. Coimbra-Filho in 1984 concluded that the three taxa known at the time are heterogeneous and individually distinctive with a non-clinal distribution of characters. Anatomically, L. chrysomelas was found to be the most divergent, with a more robust body, relatively large and modified incisors, relatively small cheek teeth, and a unique cranial shape. A molecular genetic phylogeny of the genus by B. Perez-Sweeney and coworkers in 2008 found L. chrysomelas to be basal in the lion tamarin clade. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. E Brazil (Bahia), between the Rio de Contas (N limit) and the Rio Pardo, but also S of the Rio Pardo along its middle reaches to the Rio Jequitinhonha on the border between the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais. Introduced into the suburbs of Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro State.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22-26 cm, tail 33-39 cm; weight 540-700 g (males) and 480-590 g (females). The Golden-headed Lion Tamarin’s fur is predominantly glossy black but with thick, long, golden-red and reddish-orange hairs on the front of the mane, forearms, hands, feet, thighs, and upper side of the proximal one-half of the tail.</p> <p>Habitat. Coastal lowland tropical forest and coastal white sand forest characteristically abundant in piacava palms (Attalea funifera). Golden-headed Lion Tamarins use secondary growth forest and abandoned rubber plantations, but they evidently prefer oldgrowth forest for its abundance of tree holes, which they use as sleeping sites, and epiphytic bromeliads, which are key foraging sites. They are adaptable and able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year-round food sources and foraging sites. They are also able to occupy “cabruca” (cacao agroforest plantations, shaded with a few native trees left standing, along with cultivated fruit trees). Cabruca agroforest predominates in the eastern part ofits distribution. Food trees such as fig (Ficus), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), and Inga in cabruca can be important food sources, and given sufficient sleeping sites (tree holes) and foraging sites (epiphytic bromeliads), group can live in old cabruca, although predation risk in the more open vegetation and scantier trees is high. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins frequently go to the ground because of the broken/open canopy and open understory. Near the coast in the cacao growing region, there is no distinct dry season, with rainfall exceeding 2000 mm/year (heaviest rains in March—June), but in the western part of their distribution, forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and forests in some areas are semi-deciduous, with rainfall as low as 1000 mm/year.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diets of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin include fruits, flowers, nectar, gums, and small animal prey, including principally arthropods but also snails, small frogs, lizards, small snakes, and bird eggs. Three groups studied for 2-5 years in Una Biological Reserve ate fruits from 71 species (32 families), nectar from four species of Manilkara (Sapotaceae) and Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae), flowers from two species (one of them Mabea piriri, Euphorbiaceae), and, infrequently, gum from gouge holes made by sympatric Wied’s Black-tufted-ear Marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii) and seed pods of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae). The main families providing fruits included Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Myrcia, Psidium, and Marlierea), Melastomataceeae (Miconia, Henriettea), Moraceae (Ficus, Brosimium), Urticaceae (Pourouma), Fabacae (Inga), and Bromeliaceae (Aechmea). Ttypical of other callitrichids, Golden-headed Lion Tamarins concentrate on just a few species at a time. For example, in any one month, just three species can account for 70-75% of the feeding records on plant foods. With home ranges larger (40 ha or more) than sympatric marmosets (12-30 ha), Golden-headed Lion Tamarins are able to take more advantage of fruiting seasons of each species; they have more individual trees in their home range than, for example, Wied’s Black-tuftedear Marmosets that might have just one. Marmosets depend more on gum. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins living in cabruca have a less diverse diet offruits (20 or so species, including Myrtaceae and Sapotaceae), but they benefit from access to cultivated trees that produce fruit for most of the year, including Inga affinis (Fabaceae), Ficus gomelleira, and the exotic Artocarpus heterophyllus (both Moraceae). In 1999-2000, a study of three groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarin using mature forest, cabruca, and secondary forest found 155 plants species from 49 families in their diets; they ate fruits from 94% of the species, nectar from 5%, and gum from 1%. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins ingest and disperse seeds of many of these species. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins forage for small animal prey in specific microhabitats: nooks and crannies, accumulations of leaf litter in palm crowns and vine tangles, and particularly epiphytic bromeliads (c.76% ofthe time). In cabruca areas, 97% of the foraging sites used by Golden-headed Lion Tamarins were bromeliads (they also eat their pineapple-like, multiple fruits). They forage mostly in the lower and middle canopy 10-20 m above the forest floor. Sympatric marmosets occur lower in the canopy/understory and are stalk-and-pounce, foliage gleaners at heights of 5-13 m above the ground; they almost never forage in bromeliads.</p> <p>Breeding. Despite a lack of seasonality in rainfall in the coastal region, births of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin are seasonal, occurring in October-April. Females generally give birth to twins or singletons, just once a year; only four of 15 females monitored for eight years at Una Biological Reserve bred twice per year. Reproductive parameters and mating systems are typical of the genus, as described for the Golden Lion Tamarin. The ovarian cycle is c.21 days, gestation is c¢.125 days, and postpartum ovulation occurs c.17 days later. Female Golden-headed Lion Tamarins do not conceal their reproductive status. They show proceptive sexual presenting, and males increase their frequency of anogenital sniffing and mounting during the fertile period. Males remain close to the female during this time, indicating mate-guarding.</p> <p>Activity patterns. The Golden-headed Lion Tamarin spends ¢.30-38% of its time traveling, 20-25% stationary and resting, 18-25% foraging for and eating small animals, 12-18% foraging for and eating fruits, 10-15% in social activities, and 2% eating flowers and nectar. Overall, foraging and feeding take up ¢.25-35% of their day. They typically begin their day traveling and feeding on fruits or nectar. During the morning, they increase their foraging on animal prey and then tend to rest from c.11:00 h until 14:00 h. After that, foraging on animal prey and fruits resumes and continues until they retire to their sleeping sites at ¢.16:00-17:00 h. Golden-headed Lion Tamarins use a limited number of sleeping sites, and high rates of travel seen early and late in the day are the result of them going to and from these sites, sometimes traveling several hundred meters in the process. Tree holes are used most commonly, but they also sleep in large bromeliads and in dense vegetation and tangles of lianas.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins are generally 2-8 individuals (although sometimes as large as 15), with 1-3 adult males and one, sometimes two, adult females, along with infants, juveniles, and subadult offspring. They occupy home ranges of 40 ha (Lemos Maia Experimental Station) to as many as 200 ha (Una Reserve), depending on distribution and abundance of their food sources and foraging sites, which are related closely to the mosaic of vegetation types available to them. In Una, home ranges overlap is as much as 36%. They travel 1400-2175 m/day. In cabruca, a home range can be as small as 22-28 ha. Both males and females disperse from their natal groups. Male sibling pairs may set up new groups. It is probable that dispersal and formation of new groups follow the same pattern in the betterstudied Golden Lion Tamarin. The density of the Goldenheaded Lion Tamarin in Una Biological Reserve is 5 ind/km?, but densities were as high as 17 ind/km?* (0-9-3 groups/km?) in certain parts of the forest in nearby Lemos Maia Experimental Station. In cabruca vegetation, densities are higher at 17-21 ind/ km?*. Mammals seen attacking Golden-headed Lion Tamarins include the Tayra (Eira barbara), the Margay (Leopardus wiedii), and dogs. Raptors and snakes are no doubt also significant predators. Groups of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins and Wied’s Blacktufted-ear Marmosets sometimes travel together. This association is more common in open cabruca areas, especially when there are newborn twins in the groups, probably a response to the higher risk of predation there.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Golden-headed Lion Tamarins is threatened by loss of habitat through logging, charcoal production, agriculture, cattle ranching, highway construction, and urbanization. Humid forests in the eastern parts of their distribution were relatively well preserved until the 1970s. Land use was characterized by very large estates where cacao cultivation required only a small portion of the land and left wide expanses of forest intact. The predominant form of cultivation used native canopy trees to shade the cacao trees, so-called cabruca. Modern times brought efforts to maximize profits by clear-cutting the forest and planting rubber trees, fast-growing African Erythrina trees, or bananas to shade the cacao. The fall in price on the world cacao market and the introduction of a fungal disease (Witches’ Broom Disease) from the Amazon severely damaged the industry and the regional economy in the 1980s. Consequences included a diversification of crops (rubber, coconut, oil palm, and pepper), an increase in cattle ranching (clear-cutting for pasture), and a boom in charcoal and logging industries. Resulting rural unemployment caused an influx of squatters who used destructive slash-and-burn agriculture. In the western distribution of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin, cattle-ranching has been predominant since the 1930s, and the forest is now largely destroyed and highly fragmented; only c.10% ofit remains in scattered fragments. In the early 1990s, the wild population of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin was estimated to be 6000-15,000 individuals. Areas of cabruca were excluded as unsuitable (although important as corridors for wildlife between forest patches), but recent findings of the high densities of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins in old cabruca plantations indicate that the total population is probably larger. The first protected area for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin was Una Biological Reserve, created in 1980 and expanded to encompass 18,500 ha in 2007. Various other protected areas have been established in recent years, including Serra das Lontras National Park and Una Wildlife Refuge. Lemos Maia and Canavieiras experimental stations of the regional cacao growing authority also have small populations of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins. There is a well-managed captive breeding program for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin with a good founder stock, confiscated from illegal export in the early 1980s. Conservation and management of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin is overseen by an international committee formed by the Brazilian government in 1985. Besides the Brazilian government, the principal motivation behind conservation measures for the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin has come from the Instituto de Pesquisas Socio-Ambientais do Sul da Bahia (IESB), founded in 1994 specifically to protect it and the forests of the region.</p> <p>Bibliography. Alger &amp; Caldas (1994), Bach et al. (2001), Ballou (1989), Ballou et al. (2002), Baker et al. (2002), Cardoso et al. (2011), Catenacci et al. (2009), Coimbra-Filho (1969, 1970a, 1977, 1981), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1973, 1977b), De Vleeschouwer, Heistermann et al. (2000), De Vleeschouwer, Leus &amp; Van Elsacker (2003), Dietz, de Sousa &amp; Billerbeck (1996), French, De Vleeschouwer et al. (2002), French, Pissinatti &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1996), Hankerson et al. (2006), Hershkovitz (1977), Holst et al. (2006), Kierulff, Raboy et al. (2002), Kleiman &amp; Mallinson (1998), Kleiman &amp; Rylands (2002), Kleiman et al. (1988), Mallinson (1984, 1989), Oliveira &amp; Dietz (2011), Oliveira, Hankerson et al. (2010), Oliveira, Neves et al. (2011), Padua et al. (2002), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Pinto &amp; Rylands (1997), Pissinatti et al. (2002), Raboy &amp; Dietz (2000, 2004), Raboy, Christman &amp; Dietz (2004), Raboy, Neves et al. (2011), Rambaldi et al. (2002), Rosenberger &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1984), Rylands (1989a, 1993c), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Pinto (2002), Rylands, Mallinson et al. (2002), dos Santos &amp; Blanes (1999), Tardif, Santos et al. (2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF3FFE2FADDF98B69F6E84A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFF2FFEDFA09F78B6721E467.text	DF668780FFF2FFEDFA09F78B6721E467.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Leontopithecus chrysopygus (Mikan 1823)	<div><p>46.</p> <p>Black Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Leontopithecus chrysopygus</p> <p>French: Tamarin-lion noir / German: Schwarzes Lowenaffchen / Spanish: Titi len negro Other common names: Golden-rumped Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Jacchus chrysopygus Mikan, 1823,</p> <p>Ipanema (= Varnhagem or Bacaetava, near Sorocaba), Sao Paulo, Brazil.</p> <p>Craniodental analysis of Leontopithecus by A. Rosenberger and A. F. Coimbra-Filho in 1984 found L. chrysopygus to be distinct in its larger size and more robust physique, and they suspected it to be the most primitive member of the genus. A molecular genetic analysis (mtDNA control region) by B. Perez-Sweeney and coworkers in 2008 found that L. chrysomelas was basal in the phylogenetic tree and L. chrysopygus and L. rosalia were derived sister species (also indicated in some craniodental aspects). Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Brazil (Sao Paulo State), along the N (right) margin of the Rio Paranapanema, W as far as the Rio Parana, and between the upper rios Paranapanema and Tieté; today, known only from eleven widely separated forest patches covering c.444 km”.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-30 cm,tail 36—41 cm; weight 540-690 g. Male Black Lion Tamarins are larger than females. They are mostly black with golden-reddish patches on the forehead, rump, base of the tail, thighs, and ankles. The mane is long with a smattering of red-gold hairs.</p> <p>Habitat. Inland, lowland mesophytic semi-deciduous forest, almost entirely lacking the bromeliads favored as foraging microhabitats by the coastal species of lion tamarins. Black Lion Tamarins particularly use swampy forest for their foraging and sleeping sites and the nectar provided in by Symphonia globulifera (Guttiferae) trees in the dry season. The middle and lower layers of the canopy are preferred.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Black Lion Tamarins eat fruits, nectar, gums, and small animals, mainly arthropods. Diets of four groups studied in Morro do Diabo State Park comprised 78% fruits, 14% animal prey, and 8% exudates (gums and nectar). Fruits and exudates came from 53 species in 24 families. Significant in the diets were the sticky soft mesocarp of the fruits of queen palm orjeriva (Syagrus romanzoffiana, Arecaceae), along with a remarkable preponderance of Myrtaceae (Campomanesia, Myrcia, Myrciaria, Myrceugenia, Eugenia, Psidium) that are abundant in the forests there. Small fleshy fruits of species of these genera ranked among the top ten items in the diets of the four groups studied and 65% of the fruits eaten overall. Fruit of Annona (Annonaceae) was also important, and they ate fruits of Rhipsalis (Cactaceae) and inflorescences of the epiphytic Philodendron (Araceae). They ate the nectar of Mabea fistulifera (Euphorbiaceae) and gums of Helietta longifoliata, Esenbeckia (both Rutaceae), and Acacia polyphylla (Fabaceae). Observations in the Caetetus Reserve found thatjust five species of plants provide nearly two-thirds of the fruit part of the diet through the year: Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae), Rhamnidium elaeocarpum (Rhamnaceae), Celtis pubescens (Cannabaceae), and two species of Ficus (Moraceae). There, they also eat readily available gums of Tapiria guianensis (Anacardiaceae), Pilocarpus pauciflorus (Rutaceae), Terminalia (Combretaceae), and Euterpe edulis (Arecaceae). Animal prey includes Orthoptera (grasshoppers), phasmids (stick insects), beetles, caterpillars, cockroaches, spiders, snails, frogs (Hyla), lizards, snakes, and fledgling birds. As in the other lion tamarins, Black Lion Tamarins are site-specific foragers. They poke, probe, and search in dry palm leaves, twigs, and tree cavities and under loose bark. Lacking bromeliads as foraging sites in their native habitats, fronds, flowers, and leaflitter in crowns of palms are particularly important foraging sites; e.g. Syagrus romanzoffiana, guariroba (S. oleracea) and palmetto (Euterpe edulis). Sites used most for foraging in Caetetus Reserve were crevices and holes (36-43%) and palm crowns (20-23%), followed by bamboos, lianas, bark, and epiphytes. Black Lion Tamarins forage more for animal prey (19-8% of their time) in the dry season (March—-September) than the wet season (12:8%), and eat less fruit (59-4% vs. 94-3%) and more exudates (29-4% vs. 1-9%).</p> <p>Breeding. Black Lion Tamarins breed once a year in the early wet season (October—February). Gestation has not been measured but is probably c.125 days, as in other members of the genus. Ovarian cycles average about 23 days.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Black Lion Tamarins are active for about ten hours a day. They leave their sleeping site shortly after sunrise. Fruitfeeding is predominant in the early morning, after which they travel and forage almost constantly, with a lull to rest around midday. Fruit-eating peaks again in the afternoon before they retire. In a study of a group of Black Lion Tamarins in Caetetus Reserve, traveling accounted for 33-9% of their time, feeding 29-9%, resting 17-5%, foraging 15-8%, and 2-9% engaging in social or other activities. In the dry season when fruit is scarce, they travel more, rest less, and forage for animal prey more than in the wet season. At Morro do Diabo, Black Lion Tamarins consistently use holes in trees as sleeping sites. Of four groups studied there, each had 16-19 holes that they would use, generally not returning to the same one on consecutive nights.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group size is generally small, averaging 4-5 individuals (3-7), usually with a single breeding female and 1-2 adult males. Average home range size for four groups in the Morro do Diabo was 138 ha (range 113-199 ha). At Caetetus Reserve, the home range of a group of 4-6 individuals was considerably larger at 276-5 ha. This group initially had two adult females but one disappeared three months into the study, leaving a single breeding pair. The group at Morro do Diabo traveled 1362-2088 m/day. At Caetetus, a group traveled up to 3000 m/day. The most recent density estimate for the 34,156-ha forest in the Morro do Diabo indicated 3-7 ind/km? and a total population of over 1100. At Caetetus, small groups and large home ranges resulted in a low density of c.1 ind/km?*.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Black Lion Tamarin is threatened by loss of habitat through conversion to agriculture, cattle ranching, highways, and urbanization. Populations remaining today are small and occur in low densities (small groups with large home ranges). Even when protected, the principal problems for the eleven surviving populations are genetic and demographic. Much of their habitat was cleared by the early 1900s, and they were not seen for more 65 years. In 1970, a small population of ¢.100 individuals was discovered by Coimbra-Filho in Morro do Diabo State Park in the south-west of Sao Paulo State. By 1993, a total ofsix populations were known, totaling c.1000 individuals by 2002. Inbreeding, however, remains a problem for the Black Lion Tamarin, and its survival may ultimately depend on exchanging individuals among these widely scattered locales to maintain genetic diversity. Corridors have already been planted, and some translocations have been carried out. It is protected in Morro do Diabo State Park (34,441 ha of which 23,800 ha is forest), Caetetus State Ecological Station (2178 ha), and Mico-Leao-Preto Ecological Station (5500 ha) that includes three forest patches just to the west of the Morro do Diabo State Park. The Instituo de Pesquisas Ecologicas (IPE, founded by C. and S. Padua) set up the first field studies and conservation measures in the region of the Morro do Diabo in 1984, with the pending loss of part of the Park’s forest to the reservoir of the Rosana Hydroelectric Dam on the Rio Paranapamena. The principal measures underway to protect the Black Lion Tamarin focus on surveys (to monitor scattered populations and search for new ones), metapopulation management involving translocations and introductions, preservation of remaining forest fragments (with and withoutlion tamarins), and creation of corridors to link forest patchesto establish larger areas of continuous forest. Ongoing environmental education and awareness programs in the vicinities of protected areas embrace working with regional and local communities to improve their livelihoods, while instigating conservation measures protecting landscapes and natural resources. The captive population of the Black Lion Tamarin, initiated by Coimbra-Filho, founder of the Centro de Primatologia do Rio Janeiro, has never quite thrived as did those for the Golden and Golden-headed lion tamarins. A limited number of founders was one problem, and it was mitigated to some extent by rescuing Black Lion Tamarins during the inundation the Rio Paranapamena by the Rosana Hydroelectric Dam. Today, small healthy populations are maintained in a limited number of breeding centers and zoos in Brazil, Europe, and the USA, which are able to contribute to in situ metapopulation management protocols. Research and conservation measures for the Black Lion Tamarin have been overseen and guided by an international committee created by the Brazilian government in 1987. The total wild population has been estimated at ¢.1840 individuals in two genetically distinct populations: one in the eastern part ofits distribution, including Morro do Diabo, and the other in the western part, including Caetetus. The key to increasing the size of populations and demographic stability lies in forest restoration and creation of forest corridors between forest patches where they occur.</p> <p>Bibliography. Albernaz (1997), Ballou et al. (2002), Burity et al. (1999), de Carvalho &amp; de Carvalho (1989), Coimbra-Filho (1970a, 1970b, 1976, 1985a), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Mittermeier (1973, 1977b), Cullen et al. (2001), Hershkovitz (1977), Holst et al. (2006), Keuroghlian &amp; Passos (2001), Kleiman &amp; Mallinson (1998), Kleiman &amp; Rylands (2002), Mamede-Costa &amp; Godoi (1998), Medici et al. (2003), Padua et al. (2002), Passos (1997, 1999), Passos &amp; Keuroghlian (1999), Passos &amp; Kim (1999), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Pissinatti et al. (2002), Rosenberger &amp; Coimbra-Filho (1984), Rylands (1993c), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Pinto (2002), Rylands, Mallinson et al. (2002), Valladares-Padua (1993, 1997), Valladares-Padua &amp; Cullen (1994), Valladares-Padua, Ballou et al. (2002), Valladares-Padua, Padua &amp; Cullen (2002), Wormell &amp; Price (2001).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFF2FFEDFA09F78B6721E467	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
DF668780FFFDFFECFADDFBA9657CE358.text	DF668780FFFDFFECFADDFBA9657CE358.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Leontopithecus caissara Lorini & Persson 1990	<div><p>47.</p> <p>Black-faced Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Leontopithecus caissara</p> <p>French: Tamarin-lion a téte noire / German: Schwarzkopf-Léwenaffchen / Spanish: Titi le6n de cara negra Other common names: Superagti Lion Tamarin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Leontopithecus caissara Lorini &amp; Persson, 1990,</p> <p>Barra do Ararapira, Ilha de Superagui, municipality of Guaraquecaba, Parana State, Brazil (25° 18’ S, 48° 11°’ W).</p> <p>The geographical proximity of L. caissara and L. chrysopygus and the finding that some captive L. chrysopygus show a pelage color pattern very similar to that of L. caissara led to the suggestion that L. caissara was a subspecies or mere color variant of L. chrysopygus. This was refuted by an analysis of the cranial and mandibular morphology by C. Burity and coworkers in 1999, which found L. caissara to be distinct. A molecular genetic analysis by B. Perez-Sweeney and coworkers in 2008 confirmed the conclusion of Burity, and placed L. caissara as a sister species to a clade comprising L. rosalia and L. chrysopygus. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Brazil (states of Parana &amp; Sao Paulo), on Superagti I, and on the mainland in parts of the valleys of the rios Sebui and dos Patos;its entire distribution is less than 300 km?®.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body c.34 cm,tail ¢.40 cm; weight 540-710 g. The body of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin is orange-gold, with black on the mane, face, chest,feet, forearms, and tail. The transitional region behind the shoulders consists of long golden hairs that are dark brown at the base.</p> <p>Habitat. Mature lowland coastal forest. On the mainland and the island of Superagiii, Black-faced Lion Tamarins use swamp and inundated areas intensively because of their abundant foraging microhabitats and plants providing fruits and nectar. Dryland forest, however,is where they sleep in tree holes, Indaia palms (Attalea dubia, Arecaceae), and epiphytic bromeliads. Mainland groups, in particular, also use secondary forest because of their high densities of preferred fruiting trees. On the mainland, they avoid montane and submontane forest and are not found at elevations above 40 m. The Black-faced Lion Tamarin is the southernmost of any of the callitrichids, and changes in temperature and vegetation with elevation are more abrupt than at lower latitudes. Mountains come close to the sea in this region, and for this reason, their geographic distribution is very small. Middle and upper layers of the canopy are preferred.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Thefirst study of the Black-feaced Lion Tamarin indicated a diet of 745% fruits, 129% fungi, 10-3% animal prey, 1:3% gums, and 1% flowers and nectar. Thirty plant species in 17 families have been recorded in its diet. The principal family providing fruits is the Myrtaceae. Overall, nine species accounted for 94% of the plant part of the diet, 31% involving four species of Myrtaceae (Myrcia acuminatissima, M. multiflora, Marlierea tomentosa, and Psidium cattleianum). Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae), Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae), Calophyllum brasiliense (Clusiaceae), and an unknown species of Myrsinaceae were also significant providers of fruits during the year. Nectar is taken from a number of species of Myrtaceae, Melastomatacae, and Bromeliaceae (Aechmea). They eat flowers of Aechmea and Marcgravia polyantha (Marcgraviaceae), and gum of 1. guianensis is eaten occasionally. An interesting component of the diet is the sporocarp of the ascomycete fungus Mycomalmus bambusinus (Clavicipitaceae) that they find on bamboo culms (Chusquea) near the ground. Fungi are eaten in the dry season and early wet season in June—-October and particularly in July-September. Consumption offruit declines in the dry season (April-September). Animal prey include grasshoppers, cockroaches, stick-insects, beetles, insects, spiders, and tree frogs. They forage for animal prey from the ground to c.15 m in the forest canpoy but concentrate more effort at heights of 6-10 m.</p> <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Black-faced lion Tamarins begin their activities at 06:00 h and return to their sleeping sites at ¢.16:00 h. They are most active—feeding and foraging— in the morning at 09:00-12:00 h, after which they tend to rest more until ¢.15:00 h. They spend ¢.56% of their time moving, 29% feeding, 14% in social activities (mainly grooming), and only c¢.1% resting. On the island of Superagtii, they use mainly tree holes as sleeping sites, but on the mainland, they frequently use crowns of Indaia palms, bromeliads, and sometimes termite nests.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin are 3-7 individuals. Their home ranges are the largest recorded for any callitrichid. The average home rangesize for seven groups was 300 ha. They travel 1000-3400 m/day. Groups on the island of Superagtii tend to have longer daily movements indicating more dispersed food sources. On the mainland, two groups shared the same home range, with 100% overlap. With their large home ranges, densities are low and estimated at 1-7 ind/km?® on Superagiii.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Black-faced Lion Tamarin was first discovered in 1990 on the island of Superagti. In 2002, the total world population was estimated at less than 300 individuals. Currently, they are believed to number less than 400 individuals. Conservation and management of the Black-faced Lion Tamarin has been overseen by an international committee formed by the Brazilian government in 1992. The Brazilian government,in collaboration with the Instituto de Pesquisas Ecolégicas (IPE), has been carrying out conservation programs for the Black-faced Lion Tamarin since 1995. These activities included ongoing research on its ecology and behavior, management of the Superagui National Park, environmental awareness programs with schools and local communities, and programs to involve local fishing communities in conservation measures and to improve their livelihoods.</p> <p>Bibliography. French et al. (2002), Holst et al. (2006), Kierulff, Raboy et al. (2002), Kleiman &amp; Mallinson (1998), Kleiman &amp; Rylands, (2002), Lorini &amp; Persson (1990, 1994), Nascimento &amp; Schmidlin (2011), Nascimento et al. (2011), Padua et al. (2002), Perez-Sweeney et al. (2008), Persson &amp; Lorini (1993), Prado (1999), Prado &amp; Valladares-Padua (2004), Prado et al. (2000), Rambaldi et al. (2002), Rodrigues et al. (1992), Rylands (1993c), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Pinto (2002), Rylands, Mallinson et al. (2002), Valladares-Padua &amp; Prado (1996), Vivekananda (1994).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780FFFDFFECFADDFBA9657CE358	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Callitrichiade. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 262-346, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730714
