identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088.text	039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tapiridae Gray 1821	<div><p>Family TAPIRIDAE (TAPIRS)</p> <p>• [Large mammals with rounded back and hindquarters, tapering forequarters and nose, short, muscular legs, dark color, thick skin, and bristly, scattered hairs.</p> <p>• 180-300 cm.</p> <p>• Indo-Malayan and Neotropical Regions.</p> <p>• Tropical and subtropical montane, lowland moist, swamp, and cloud forests, paramos, seasonally moist grassland, and savanna; strongly associated with water and riparian environments.</p> <p>• 1 genus, 4 species, 7 taxa.</p> <p>• 3 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/039CED53FFC1FF8FFD2B27E51BC09088	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tapiridae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 182-204, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721161
039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.text	039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tapirus terrestris Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Lowland Tapir</p> <p>Tapirus terrestris</p> <p>French: Tapir du Brésil / German: Flachlandtapir / Spanish: Tapir amazonico</p> <p>Other common names: Brazilian Tapir, South American Tapir</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hippopotamus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>“Habitat in Brasillia” i.e. Pernambuco, Brazil.</p> <p>Four subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>T.t.terrestrisLinnaeus,1758—VenezuelathroughtheGuianastoCBrazilandNEArgentina(N&amp;CMisiones).</p> <p>T.t.aenigmaticusGray,1872—SEColombia,EEcuador,andNEPeru.</p> <p>T.t.colombianusHershkovitz,1954—tropicalzonesofNColombiaintheareasofMagdalena,Bolivar,Atlantico,Cordoba,andNWAntioquia,asfarastheAtrataRiver,andasfarNastheRancheriaRiverinLaGuajira.</p> <p>T. t. spegazzinii Ameghino, 1909 — SE Braz1l (Mato Grosso State), E Bolivia, Paraguay, and N Argentina to NE Santa Fe, NE Santiago del Estero, SE Jujuy, and E Salta.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 191-242 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 83-118 cm (males), 83-113 cm (females); weight 180-300 kg. Female Lowland Tapirs are usually larger than males. Data collected from 35 Lowland Tapirs captured during a long-term telemetry study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed that the average weight of adult tapirs was 233 kg for females (200-300 kg) and 208 kg for males (180-280 kg). Measurements oftapirs in Morro do Diabo demonstrated that adult females are significantly longer andtaller than males. Full length offemales 208-242 cm, full length of males 191-223 cm; rear height of females 90-120 cm, rear height of males 89-109 cm. In captivity, newborn Lowland Tapirs usually weigh 3-2— 5-8 kg. Calves gain an average of2-27 kg per week and are completely weaned at four months of age. Growth is usually completed by 18 months of age. The color of adult Lowland Tapirs is blackish-brown dorsally with the ears edged in white; the chest, venter and limbs are dark brown; the cheeks are grizzled brown and gray. Young of all four tapir species are born dark with yellowish or white stripes and spots, a pattern that is lost after the first six months, although some vestiges of spotting may remain in young adults. The skin of Lowland Tapirs is thickest at the nape, and often covered by scars, scratches, and bruises; beneath the epidermis is a fibrous tissue layer. There is a well-developed sagittal crest that runs from the base of the muzzle to the middle of the back, which is derived from fat and soft tissues and covered by very long black hair. The short, erect mane is prominent, and is thought to help the tapirs escape predators, which seize the dorsum of the neck. This crest is not present in the other three tapir species.</p> <p>Habitat. The Lowland Tapir has a broad geographic distribution and seems to be adapted to a wide range of habitat types. The species commonly inhabits tropical lowland South American moist and swamp forests, but also can be found in a wide range of other habitat types, including xeric Chaco and Cerrado forest, savanna wetlands, and lower montane forests, at elevations up to 2000 m. There are six main habitat categories where Lowland Tapirs can be found: tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests; tropical and subtropical moist to seasonally moist montane forests; tropical and subtropical dry forests, savannas, and shrublands; tropical and subtropical seasonally moist grasslands and savannas; montane grasslands; and mangroves. During a long-term Lowland Tapir field study in the Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tapirs strongly selected riparian environments and marshes, where they performed most of their main activities, particularly foraging. They avoided areas of agriculture and pasture land, as well as secondary growth forests. Palm forests are known to be important habitats, and they also frequent saltlicks, particularly in the Amazon. In the north-eastern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, tapirs show high preference for Acuri palm (Scheelea phalerata) forests. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, they prefer areas ofJeriva palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) forests. The Jeriva is the most abundant and widespread palm species in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest. In the Amazon, patches of moriche palm (Mauritiaflexuosa) are used intensively by tapirs. During the study in Morro do Diabo State Park, tapirs moved fairly easily through areas of non-habitat between patches of forest. These pathways included pastures and croplands, especially sugar cane, soy bean, and corn plantations. In some instances, tapirs crossed areas of forest regeneration, degraded forest corridors, and riparian forests along small rivers. Lowland Tapirs also cross eucalyptus plantations between fragments of Atlantic Forest in Espirito Santo State, Brazil.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Due to their diet and stomach anatomy, Lowland Tapirs are closer to the browser side of the grazer-browser-frugivore continuum. There is some geographic variation in the composition of their diet. In the Peruvian Amazon, the species consumes 33% fruit and 66% leaf and fiber. The diet of Lowland Tapirs in the semideciduous Atlantic Forest consists of 37% fruit and 63% leaf and fiber. In the tropical rainforests of French Guiana their diet comprised 24-4% fruit, 22-3% leaf, and 53-2% fiber. In the Bolivian Chaco, the diet was 16-8% fruit, 62% leaf, and 21-2 % fiber. Tapirs selectively browse vegetative parts of different food plants. More than 170 species of fruits in over 60 different plant families have been identified as eaten by Lowland Tapirs throughout their range. In the Peruvian Amazon, they consumed 122 species of fruit from 33 plant families, and in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Brazil, they consumed 58 species of fruit from 23 plant families. Palm fruits are among the most important food resources, especially during the dry season when other species of fruit are less available. Mauritiaflexuosa is the single most important food item (76%) in the diet of Lowland Tapirs in the Peruvian Amazon. The distribution of these palm patches appears to strongly influence the movement patterns of tapirs in the area. In addition, tapirs are efficient dispersers of Mauritia flexuosa seeds. In Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, Syagrus romanzoffiana was the most frequently found fruit (18:4%) in Lowland Tapir fecal samples. In the Bolivian Chaco, Lowland Tapirs have successfully adapted to seasonal droughts, and to diets that include a large proportion of cactus fiber.</p> <p>Breeding. There is very little information about the reproduction of Lowland Tapirs in the wild. Overall, the four species of tapirs have very slow reproductive cycles. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. Only one has been recorded in the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs. Female tapirs are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 28-32 days. The estrous period lasts 1-4 days. Postpartum estrus is possible 9-27 days after the calf is born. Thus, a female Lowland Tapir may conceive within a month after giving birth. In the wild, under the best circumstances, in habitats exhibiting little seasonality in food availability, a young can be born every 14 months. In seasonally dry habitats, the interval between births may be longer. The interbirth interval for captive individuals can be as high as 18 months. Captive Lowland Tapirs are usually sexually mature by 14-24 months and conceive at an average of 3-7 years of age. Recent results coming from the AZA Studbook for Lowland Tapirs show that females reach sexual maturity at 19 months of age (1-6 years) and first reproduce at 32 months (2-7 years). In addition, the Studbook estimated that the maximum age of reproduction for the species is 15-3 years for females and 18-7 years for males. A Lowland Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2007 modelled the dynamics of the species’ populations in the wild. Given that natural situations impose a toll on the animals, age offirst reproduction in the wild was estimated to be four years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Lowland Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. The sex ratio at birth in captivity is 3:1. The sex ratio observed in Morro do Diabo, Brazil, was 1:1-33. Monitored subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in the central Amazon of Brazil recorded a sex ratio of kills of 1:1:03. Therefore, the sex ratio at birth in the wild is generally assumed to be 50% males and 50% females. Data on Lowland Tapir longevity comes from captivity and reveals that these animals live over 35 years.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Tapirs are predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular. Lowland Tapir rest during the day and begin their activity after sunset, at around 18:00 h. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forests of Morro do Diabo State Park in Brazil, their main periods of activity are from 19:00 h to 00:00 h, with a peak between 20:00 h and 21:00 h (63% active); and from 01:00 h to 07:00 h, with a peak between 05:00 h and 06:00 h (60% active). Tapirs in Morro do Diabo are largely inactive between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. Overall, tapirs in Morro do Diabo foraged for approximately five hours in the early evening, and then seemed to rest for a few hours in the middle of the night. There followed a second foraging bout, of approximately six hours in the early hours of the day. Tapir activity patterns were analyzed separately for wet and dry season, as well for both sexes and different age classes in Morro do Diabo, and were fairly consistent. In Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs are mostly active between 18:00 h and 22:00 h, and between 00:00 h and 06:00 h, with a main activity peak between 01:00 h and 06:30 h, and very little activity between 11:00 h and 15:30 h. In the Peruvian Amazon, tapir activity peaks were observed between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and between 03:00 h and 04:00 h, with the main foraging time between 21:00 h and 03:00 h. Nocturnal line-transect sampling in Morro do Diabo State Park allowed for an analysis of the effect of moonlight intensity on tapir activity. Approximately 47% of the tapir encounters occurred during the waning crescent, 21% during the new moon, 18% during the waxing crescent, and only 14% during the full moon. It was clear that tapirs in Morro do Diabo were considerably less active during the brighter phases of the moon. Previous studies suggested that a lower level of animal activity during moonlit nights is a result of higher predation risk. In El Rey National Park, Argentina, tapirs were typically diurnal, perhaps due to lack of human disturbance.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. L.owland Tapirs can move fairly easily through areas of low quality habitat (e.g. agricultural crops, pasture lands, and eucalyptus plantations) to get from one patch of forest to another. Parameters of Lowland Tapir spatial ecology reported in the literature, particularly home range size, vary widely. Tapirs are large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals that usually require considerably large home ranges. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Morro do Diabo State Park, Brazil, tapirs use very large home ranges (4-67 km?, varying from 1-12 km? to 14-19 km?®). These home ranges have very complex internal structures, including multiple core areas, which comprise a very small proportion of the home range (50% core area = 17% of the home range; 25% core area = 6% of the home range). Little seasonal variation in size and location of home ranges and core areas was observed. These patterns are consistent for both sexes and different age classes. In the Peruvian Amazon, the home ranges of Lowland Tapirs are much smaller, ranging from 1-06 km? to 3-86 km?®, with an average of 2: 61 km ®. In Kaa-lya del Gran Chaco National Park, Bolivia, tapirs had an average home range size of 2: 48 km?*Neighboring tapirs in Morro do Diabo State Park showed very strong home range overlap between individuals (around 30%, although in some cases as high as 92%). This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. Estimates of Lowland Tapir population density range from a high of 1-6 ind/km? reported for the species in Neotropical forests in undisturbed, non-hunted, or lightly hunted sites to less than 0-3 ind/km? in other regions and habitat types. In Amazonian forests, Lowland Tapirs are usually found in densities around 0-5 ind/ km?. Exceptionally high densities (3:3-3-7 ind/km?) were observed in the Amazonian dry forests of Roraima, Brazil. In the Brazilian Pantanal, tapir densities range from 0-13 ind/km? in open grassland habitat to 0-4 ind/km? in forested habitats. In the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, densities range from 0-21 ind/km? to 1-35 ind/km?. This wide variation in density estimates can be explained by several factors, including differences in environments, habitat types studied,levels of habitat conservation, levels of hunting, and, most importantly, differences in the methods used to estimate densities. Another factor is that the Lowland Tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (e.g. around saltlicks, in palm forests, and near permanent water sources). Great variation in density can also reflect the ability of tapirs to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water). Tapirs are primarily solitary. Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for approximately twelve months. In Morro do Diabo, from a total of 81 tapir sightings obtained through nocturnal line-transect sampling, 77-78% were of one individual and 12-35% of pairs (adult female/adult male, adult female/offspring). On one occasion, three individuals were sighted. In terms of intraspecific interactions and social organization, tapirs in Morro do Diabo showed a strong home range overlap (30%) as well as overlap of core areas of use (20%) between neighboring individuals. This included strong overlap between intra and intersexual pairs, as well as between pairs of same and different age classes. The great majority of the individuals shared varying portions of their home ranges with several other individual tapirs. Thus, while tapirs in Morro do Diabo had well-defined home ranges and lived within their boundaries, no evidence was found that they defended their areas against conspecifics. In the Peruvian Amazon, Lowland Tapirs monitored through GPS telemetry regularly walked along the boundaries of their home ranges, which appeared to provide some evidence that they were defining their territory against other individuals by maintaining clear home range boundaries.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although the species has been listed as Vulnerable across its entire range, several populations in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela present considerably higher levels of threat. A few examples include tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes in Brazil, as well as Colombian and Venezuelan populations in Catatumbo, Maracaibo, and Lake Valencia watershed. The Lowland Tapir has the broadest geographic distribution of the four living species of tapirs and the species occurs in 21 different biomes in eleven countries. Historically, this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina, throughout the Chaco, Pantanal, Cerrado, Llanos, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Amazonian/Orinoco biomes. The historic distribution of the species covered approximately 13,129,874 km*. Nevertheless, populations have been severely reduced and are currently often limited to forested biomes and wetlands. The species is believed to have gone extinct in approximately 14% ofits range and the current distribution declined to 11,232,018 km*. The species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agricultural frontiers that are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. In Brazil, which constitutes a large portion of its range, the Lowland Tapir has disappeared from over one million km? (12-4% of its countrywide range). Although only about 15-20% of the Amazon has been deforested in the past 30 years, 85-90% of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared and 40% of the Pantanal has been converted to human use. Most of the Cerrado and Caatinga biomes in Brazil have been converted to agriculture and cattle ranching. As a consequence, the Lowland Tapir has been extirpated from the Caatinga; most populations in the Cerrado are small and in protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Some exceptions include remote areas of Cerrado (e.g. Chapada das Mangabeiras, Jalapao region in Tocantins State) where tapirs are still common. The Lowland Tapir is now either completely absent or severely fragmented across much of its historic range, with the Northern and Central Amazon as well as the remaining Pantanal (Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) becoming important strongholds as southern, eastern, and north-western populations are declining rapidly. The IUCN Red Lust published in 1996 listed Lowland Tapirs as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Therefore, the species has deteriorated in Red List status over a period of twelve years. There is an ongoing reduction of Lowland Tapir populations estimated to be slightly greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). This rate of decline is predicted to continue for the next three generations. The main identified threats responsible for the decline include habitat deforestation and/or alteration; habitat fragmentation (resulting in small populations and low connectivity); hunting; cattle ranching; infectious diseases; road-kill; fire; human density; plantations of monocultures (sugar cane, soy bean); lack of patrolling of protected areas; small size of protected areas; resource extraction; and impact of tourism. Hunting is one of the most important threats. Tapirs are among the preferred game species for subsistence and commercial hunters throughout the Amazon. Estimates of tapir harvest in the State of Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon range from 15,447 to 17,886 individuals per year. Due to their individualistic lifestyle, low reproductive rate, long generation time, and low population density Lowland Tapirs rarely achieve high local abundance, which makes them highly susceptible to overhunting, and populations show rapid decline when harvested. There are a number of infectious diseases (Bluetongue, Equine Encephalitis, Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, and Leptospirosis) and parasites known in Lowland Tapir populations in the Atlantic Forest and Pantanal biomes in Brazil. These diseases spread to tapirs from domestic livestock, particularly cattle and horses, and can potentially increase tapir mortality and affect reproductive rates. Another serious threat to this species is road-kill. Morro do Diabo State Park in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is crossed by a highway that, from 1996 to 2006, killed an average of six tapirs per year. Most of the tapirs killed were adult individuals capable of breeding. Road-kill is also a serious threat in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes of Brazil. Estimates of the total population size for the species throughoutits entire range are not available. This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. However a large proportion of the total Lowland Tapir population is found outside the boundaries of legally protected areas, where tapirs are hunted, chased by dogs, and face many other threats. Although the species is protected legally in most countries, hunting laws are seldom enforced and have proven ineffective.</p> <p>Bibliography. Affonso (1998), Aquino et al. (2001), Aquino &amp; Calle (2003), Ayala (2002, 2003), Barongi (1986, 1993), Bodmer (1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1995), Bodmer &amp; Lozano (2001), Bodmer et al. (1997), Brooks et al. (1997), Chiarello (1999), CITES (2005), Cordeiro (2004), Cullen et al. (2000), Desbiez (2009), Eisenberg (1989, 1997), Emmons (1990), Emmons &amp; Feer (1997), Flesher (2007), Fradrich &amp; Thenius (1972), Fragoso (1997), Fragoso &amp; Huffman (2000), Fragoso et al. (2000), Galetti et al. (2001), Gomez et al. (2005), Goncalves da Silva (2007), Haugaasen &amp; Peres (2005), Henry et al. (2000), Herrera et al. (1999), Hershkovitz (1954), Hunsaker &amp; Hahn (1965), Janson &amp; Emmons (1990), Maffei et al. (2002), Mallinson (1969, 1974), Mangini (2001), Mangini &amp; Medici (2001), Mangini et al. (2000), Medici (1999, 2001, 2002, 2010), Medici et al. (2007), Mendes-Pontes (2004), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia (2002), Montenegro (1998, 1999, 2004), Montenegro et al. (2000), Naveda et al. (2008), Noss et al. (2003), Novaro etal. (2000), Olmos (1997), Olmos et al. (1999), Padilla &amp; Dowler (1994), Pena et al. (1996), Peres (2000), Robinson &amp; Redford (1986, 1991), Rodrigues et al. (1993), Salas (1996), Salas &amp; Fuller (1996), Schaller (1983), Schipper et al. (2008), Soto (2002), Souza-Mazurek et al. (2000), Taber et al. (2008), Tobler (2008), Tobler et al. (2009), Téfoli (2006), Trolle (2003), Trolle et al. (2007), Velastin et al. (2004), Vickers (1991), Vié et al. (2009), Young (1961).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/039CED53FFC0FF8CFF2A2D1B1D9998F5	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tapiridae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 182-204, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721161
039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0.text	039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tapirus bairdii (Gill 1865)	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Central American Tapir</p> <p>Tapirus bairdii</p> <p>French: Tapir de Baird / German: Mittelamerika-Tapir / Spanish: Tapir centroamericano</p> <p>Other common names: Baird's Tapir</p> <p>Taxonomy. Elasmognathus bairdu Gill, 1865, Isthmus of Panama, Panama.</p> <p>Recent studies have suggested to include it in the genus Tapirella. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Mexico to NW Colombia; formerly also W Ecuador S to Gulf of Guayaquil, but their occurrence there is now uncertain.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 200-230 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height in adults approximately 120 cm; weight 250-350 kg. The Central American Tapir is the largest of the three Latin American species and is the largest terrestrial mammal found in the Neotropics. The Central American Tapir is dark brown or grayish-brown and has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The edges of the ears are white. Like the other species of tapir, they have small stubby tails and a long, flexible proboscis.</p> <p>Habitat. The Central American Tapir is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3600 m. The speciesis strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramos. Overall, Central American Tapirs prefer habitat types with permanent water bodies, diverse and dense understory, riparian vegetation, low incidence offires, and less hunting pressure and human presence. Some studies in Mexico have noted that Central American Tapirs prefer densely forested areas rather than open, more disturbed habitats. In the mixed deciduous forest of Santa Rosa National Park in the north-west of Costa Rica, the tapirs relied on small pools of water in dried-up riverbeds for their drinking and wallowing requirements. Much of the habitat there was subclimax forest. In Corcovado National Park, also in Costa Rica, tapir sign (tracks, dung, rubbings, and evidence of foraging) was more abundant in lowland, second-growth forests and palm swamps than mature forests. In fact, tapirs in Corcovado strongly selected secondary forests and avoided mature forests. Seasonal variations in habitat selection correlated with fruit availability were observed. Tapir sign in Corcovado showed positive correlation with distance from perennial water bodies and rain intensity; there was a negative correlation between sign and slope steepness. Central American Tapirs have been observed in the Costa Rican paramos, particularly near ponds surrounded by dense bush of Chusquea. Lacking a dense hair coat like that of the Mountain Tapir, an extraordinarily thick skin and subcutaneous fat deposits probably help Central American Tapirs withstand the low temperatures prevailing in the paramos. In La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, tapir sign has been observed along mountain crests at 1000-1500 m. These mountain crests are often covered by strips of oak forest, which are believed to be used by tapirs as both marking sites and transit areas between tropical subdeciduous and montane cloud forest slopes.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Central American Tapir selectively consumes a wide array of fruit, leaves, shoots, bark, and flowers. Long-term direct observations of one Central American Tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, revealed that these animals consume an average of 15-63 kg of fruit and fibrous materials per day. The tapir observed consumed 126 different plant species. The percentages of bites taken of each food item during the study were 67% leaves, 18:6% fruits, 11-7% stems, 2-1% bark, and 0-1% flowers. Three species accounted for 40% ofthe tapir’s bites for the entire study. The information available on feeding habits of Central American Tapirs in Mexico comes from a few studies in which about 98 plant species of 50 families were recorded as consumed by this ungulate. The plant families most frequently represented in the diet of Central American Tapirs in Mexico are Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. A previous study carried out in a tropical lowland forest in Guatemala noted that 49 species of plants are consumed by tapirs, with three species representing the highest percentage of the diet. Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceae were the most important plant families. In the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, plant species of the families Arecaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, and Rubiaceae accounted for 33% of total plant species in the tapirs’ diet. Asteraceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae (especially Chusquea subtessellata) seem to be the predominant plant families in the 3000 m high paramos of Chirripé National Park, Costa Rica. The most evident changes in proportions of food items ingested by Central American Tapirs throughout the year are those related to fruit consumption. Fruit usually constitutes a smaller proportion of the diet of Central American Tapirs compared to leaves and other fiber sources. Average fruit proportions found in their feces generally ranges from 7-1% to 18:6% in different areas. However, in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, some fecal samples consisted almost entirely of fruit pieces and tapirs there depended heavily on a wide range offruits (and fruit sizes) during the dry season. Fruit provides significant amounts of the nutrition and calories consumed by this ungulate. Palm swamps composed primarily of Raphia taedigera and Bactris balanoidea are regularly patrolled by the tapirs and other ungulates, White-lipped Peccaries (7ayassu pecari) in particular, in search of fruit. The role of Central American Tapirs in seed dispersal and seed predation is not completely understood but studies in Santa Rosa demonstrated that they widely dispersed viable seeds of many species in their dung, including seeds incidentally ingested while browsing. In Guatemala and Mexico, Central American Tapirs appear to be important dispersers of Manilkara zapota seeds.</p> <p>Breeding. Most information about reproduction of Central American Tapirs in the wild comes from a long-term field study carried out in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Direct and indirect evidence from this study indicates that they are facultatively polygamous. Adult female tapirs usually produce a single offspring after a lengthy gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births are very rare. The calf stays with its mother for 12-18 months. An adult female Central American Tapir was monitored in Corcovado for approximately 14 years. During this period, this female produced nine offspring at intervals of approximately 18 months. Reports from zoos and field observations for wild tapirs in Corcovado indicate that females may become pregnant while lactating, which can reduce the interbirth interval to 16 months. Some females may lose their offspring during lactation, or due to stillbirths or neonatal deaths, and come into estrus sooner, therefore reducing the interbirth interval. Lastly, veterinarians who were part of the field team in Corcovado found pregnant females who had month-old calves; the females were one month pregnant, the fetus visible on ultrasound. Thus, it is highly probable that tapirs present a “foal heat” similar to horses, coming into estrus immediately after giving birth and able to get pregnant. The AZA Studbook for Central American Tapirs notes that tapirs in captivity sire their first offspring as young as two years old. A Central American Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2005 modelled the dynamics of populations in the wild. Because conditions are assumed to be harsher in the wild than in captivity, the age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years, and maximum age of reproduction 20 years, for both females and males. Thus, the generation length of wild Central American Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Although field data from Corcovado shows a larger —although not significant— percentage of males, there is no evidence to suggest a skewed sex ratio at birth.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Central American Tapirs are substantially more active nocturnally than during the day. Their main peaks of activity are between 19:00 h and 20:00 h and 03:00 h and 04:00 h. In Santa Rosa National Park, tapirs were often active for short periods during the day, particularly in the dry season, when they entered residual pools in riverbeds to rest. However, tapirs are known to become almost completely nocturnal when there is heavy hunting pressure.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The mean home range size of Central American Tapirs studied via radio-telemetry in the lowland rainforests of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, was 1-25 km®. Male tapirs showed somewhat larger but not statistically different average home ranges than females. Researchers found no seasonal changes in size or location of home ranges. In the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park, also in Costa Rica, mean tapir home range size was 1-71 km? These home range variations may be due to differences in dominant vegetation types in those areas, as well as a considerably lower number of perennial water bodies in the latter. Tapir home ranges in Corcovado highly overlapped (33-16%) those of neighboring individuals. Central American Tapir offspring normally remain with their mother for 12-18 months. It has been found that once they separate, in most cases, young tapirs in Corcovado stay in the vicinity of the mother’s home range for 3—4years prior to dispersal from the area and establishment of their own home ranges. Therefore, the ranging behavior of tapirs in Corcovado included the establishment of so called “family units,” where pairs of adult male and female tapirs maintained an almost entirely exclusive “territory” with no other resident adults over long periods of time, which they shared with 1-3 offspring from previous years. Although very high percentages of home range overlap occur within the family units, very little overlap occurs between neighboring tapir families. Estimates of Central American Tapir population density vary widely, ranging from a high 1-6 ind/km? in Corcovado National Park to a very low 0-21 ind/km? in the dry forests of Santa Rosa National Park. The data from Corcovado National Park may not be applicable to other populations, as the region ofthis research (Sirena Biological Station) has a unique mixture of ideal habitat and almost complete protection from poaching, which perhaps contributes to higher density of the species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Historically, Central American Tapir had a continuous distribution from south-eastern Mexico to the northern portion of Colombia (west of the Cauca River) to the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The historic distribution ofthis species covered 1,186,300 km®. High rates of habitat destruction and fragmentation throughoutits former range have resulted in the current tapir distribution, which is mostly restricted to protected and/or remote areas in eight countries. A recent range extension of 377 km brought Central American Tapir to a new northern limit; La Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Colombia, the species is present in Los Katios National Park. This population is poorly understood due to the presence of guerrilla activity, which has made research in the area extremely difficult. Anecdotally, biologists in Los Katios report that there are a few tapirs between the park and the Pacific Ocean. Large fragments of forest extending to the Pacific, combined with the Darien region, which is shared with the Republic of Panama, could have 160 km? of habitat for a total of 227 km?There is an ongoing reduction of Central American Tapir populations estimated to be greater than 30% in the past three generations (33 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth oftapirs, coupled with habitat loss/fragmentation and hunting, are the main factors contributing to population declines. It is estimated that approximately 70% of Central American forests have been lost through deforestation and alteration over the last 40 years. In Costa Rica alone, it is now estimated that 80% of the country has been deforested, up from about 67% approximately 25 years ago. Overall, it is inferred that at least 50% of the Central American Tapir habitat has been lost in the past three generations, causing drastic population declines and making remnant populations more susceptible to extinction from natural disasters and disease. This rate of decline is predicted to continue. In Belize, unremitting forest destruction and fragmentation of the Selva Maya continues to threaten tapir populations. The construction of roads through the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala is likely to become a major problem for tapirs in that area, as well as the isolation of smaller protected areas. In Costa Rica, logging and destructive farming practices are widespread. Gold mining is another problem in some parts of this country. The effect of hunting is notable given that Central American Tapirs are common where not hunted and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high. Even minimal hunting has proven to significantly decrease their populations, which is expected given their low reproductive rate. Some evidence exists that tapirs are susceptible and have been exposed to pathogens that also cause disease in livestock and horses; however, to date, there is no proof that infectious diseases have caused significant mortalities or have affected population levels. Nevertheless, several adult tapirs have been found dead nearlivestock areas in Chimalapas rain forest, Mexico, and were thought to have died from infectious diseases. Although most Central American Tapir populations have not been quantified and monitored yet, the current overall population estimate for this species is approximately 5000 mature individuals (Mexico, 1000; Belize, no current estimates; Guatemala, 1000; Honduras, 500; Nicaragua, 500; Costa Rica, 1000; Panama, 1000; Colombia, 250). There appear to be several strongholds for tapir populations, including La Amistad International Park in Costa Rica and Panama. The Selva Maya shared by Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico is the largest continuoustract of forest where Central American Tapirs can be found. Recent surveys in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, found tapirs to be among the most abundant large vertebrates above 2000 m elevation, where large populationsstill remain in areas where they are not hunted. In the Republic of Panama, reports suggest that tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope. Their range extends from Bocas del Toro Province in western Panama throughout the Panama Canal watershed to the Kuna Yala Comarca. These reports also confirmed their presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3000 m,as well as in the Darien region near the Colombian border. The Mosquitia area of Honduras and Nicaragua is particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. The species is believed to have been extirpated from El Salvador, but there are recent sightings and reports suggesting the speciesstill persists there at some level. Central American Tapirs occur in a number of protected areas throughout their range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo in Mexico are thought to hold numerous tapirs. In Guatemala, the Maya and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves could hold several hundred more individuals, as could some other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Although the species is protected nationally throughout its range, these laws are often not enforced in many areas.</p> <p>Bibliography. Barongi (1986, 1993), Bolanos &amp; Naranjo (2001), Brooks et al. (1997), Carrillo et al. (2000), Castellanos et al. (2008), CITES (2005), Eisenberg &amp; Redford (1999), Escamilla et al. (2000), Foerster (1998), Foerster &amp; Medici (2002), Foerster &amp; Vaughan (2002), Fragoso (1991a, 1991b), Garcia (2006), Garcia, Leonardo et al. (2009), Garcia, Ruiz &amp; Morales (2008), Harmsen et al. (2009), Hernédndez-Divers et al. (2005), Hernandez-Divers &amp; Foerster (2001), Hershkovitz (1954), Lira et al. (2004), Medici (2001, 2010), Medici et al. (2006), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia (2002), Muench (2001), Naranjo (1995, 2009), Naranjo &amp; Bodmer (2002), Naranjo &amp; Cruz-Aldan (1998), Read (1986), Reid (1997), Schipper et al. (2008), Terwilliger (1978), Tobler (2002), Tobler et al. (2006), Vié et al. (2009), Williams (1984).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/039CED53FFC2FF8BFF292B4A19D293E0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tapiridae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 182-204, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721161
039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315.text	039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tapirus pinchaque Roulin 1829	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Mountain Tapir</p> <p>Tapirus pinchaque</p> <p>French: Tapir des Andes / German: Andentapir / Spanish: Tapir de montana</p> <p>Other common names: Andean Tapir, Woolly Tapir</p> <p>Taxonomy. Tapir pinchaque Roulin, 1829,</p> <p>Paramo de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca, Colombia.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. The species is known to occur in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, and N Peru; historically also in W Venezuela, but now extirpated.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 180-200 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 80-90 cm; weight 150-200 kg. The Mountain Tapir is the smallest of the four tapir species. Nevertheless,it is the largest terrestrial mammal in the Andes. Females tend to be slightly larger than males but this is generally indistinguishable in the wild. Newborn Mountain Tapirs usually weigh 4-7 kg. Adults have dark brown to coal-black fur, with white furry fringes around the lips, hoofed toes, and usually the tips of the rounded ears. The fur is 3-4 cm long. The species is adapted to live at high elevations with its thick undercoat and long, woolly outercoat, which both insulates and absorbs heat from the sun, providing protection against the cool night temperatures. The eyes are a glazy bluish-brown. Its splayed hooves allow it considerable versatility for locomotion in the high Andes, even on the snow banks and glaciers.</p> <p>Habitat. The five major habitat types for Mountain Tapirs are chaparral, tropical montane (Andean) forests, paramos, ecotones, and riverine meadows between 2200 m and 4800 m. Mountain Tapirs rarely use open habitats (pampas), in spite of the considerable quantity and quality of food available. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, Mountain Tapirs selected secondary forests, avoided paramos and ecotones, and showed no preference for or against mature forests. Their density in secondary forests was higher than in mature forest, ecotones, and paramos. Bedding sites are frequently encountered in forest thickets. In areas with cattle, the tapirs tend to be found on steep, forested mountain slopes inaccessible to cattle.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Mountain Tapirs are classified as selective browsers according to their craniodental patterns and dental morphology. The Mountain Tapir diet includes a variety of understory plant species including herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruits and berries, twigs, and a predominance ofleaves. A field study in Ecuador showed that of 28 plant families, Asteraceae ranked highest in the number of different species eaten, followed in diminishing order by Gramineae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Scrophulareaceae, and Valerianaceae. The same study indicated that Mountain Tapirs select certain favored plants regardless of their relative abundance. Flower parts were noted in five out of 37 fecal samples. A more recentfield study in Colombia showed that a total of 109 species of plants were consumed, and 45 of them were strongly selected. Mountain Tapirs consumed 54% woody species, 30% herbs, and 16% grasses. Once again, Asteraceae was the most frequent family in the Mountain Tapir diet. Patches of Chusquea make up a high proportion of secondary forest vegetation in Los Nevados National Park and make up a large part of the tapirs’ diet. The Mountain Tapir uses the sensitive bristles on the tip of its proboscis, as well as its senses of smell, taste, and, to a lesser degree,sight in selecting palatable items. Like other tropical species living in areas of high rainfall, the Mountain Tapir depends upon supplementary mineral intake from mineral seeps and natural saltlicks. Additionally, Mountain Tapir occasionally eat certain types of clayish mud, according to native Puruhaes Indians.</p> <p>Breeding. There is virtually no information about reproduction of Mountain Tapirs in the wild. Adult females produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). Twin births have never been recorded. Estrus lasts 3—4 days and is on a lunar cycle. A Mountain Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2004 modelled the dynamics of mountain tapir populations in the wild. The age of first reproduction was estimated to be three years for females and four years for males. Maximum age of reproduction was estimated to be 15 (+ 3) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Mountain Tapirs was estimated to be eleven years. Male Mountain Tapirs are reported to engage in violent confrontations over females.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Daily activity of Mountain Tapirs in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, was clearly bimodal, with peaks in the early hours of the day (05:00-07:00 h) and early hours of the evening (18:00-20:00 h). In the cloud forests and wet paramos of Ecuador, the activity of a young Mountain Tapir was higher during the morning (07:00-09:00 h) and late afternoon /evening (15:00-21:00 h). Increased nocturnal activity may be witnessed in areas with a greater presence of humans and livestock. In Colombia,it has been hypothesized that the Mountain Tapir is more active at higher elevations (i.e. paramos and the upper limit of montane forests) during the dry season; during the wet season, activity increases at lower elevations. Apparently, domestic livestock management activities during the dry season at lower elevations forces the tapirs to move to paramos. A camera-trap study carried out in Los Nevados National Park revealed higher Mountain Tapir nighttime activity along trails and at a natural lick during the full moon.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Very little is known about the spatial ecology, intraspecific interactions and social organization of Mountain Tapirs. GPS telemetry was used to monitor a few individuals in Los Nevados National Park, Colombia. The estimated mean home range size was 2-5 km*. Home range size did not seem to vary seasonally. Home ranges of adults overlap by as much as a third, with a core territory belonging to the male, his mate, and offspring. Males show greater fidelity to their more circular territory and are more likely to defend territories than females. Markings by dung piles and rubbings on trees seem to be part of the territorial behavior of males as well as females who share the same territory. Urinary demarcation has been noted and is often associated with an instinctive pawing of the hindfoot. Mountain Tapir density estimates appear to be much lower when compared to South American and Central American Tapirs. The Mountain Tapir density estimated through telemetry in Sangay National Park, Ecuador, was 0-17 ind/km?. In Los Nevados National Park, Colombia, a GPS telemetry study resulted in an estimate of 0-1 ind/km?®. Density estimates based on track counts were 0-18 ind/km? in Los Nevados and 0-25 ind/km? in the Parque Regional Ucumari, also in Colombia.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. In Colombia, it occurs in the central Andes, south of Los Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, near Bogota. There are no Mountain Tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena, and Cerro Tacarcuna. Nevertheless, there are reports of their presence (footprints, feces, and poaching remains) in the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. In Ecuador, Mountain Tapirs are found in the eastern Andes, including Sangay National Park, Llanganates National Park, Podocarpus National Park, and Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve. In Peru, the species is distributed from the Ayabaca province, Piura Department (04° 20 ° S) in the Western Cordillera to the Chota Province, Cajamarca Department (06° 20 ° S) in the Eastern Cordillera. In the southern part of the distribution in Peru, the species occurs in the Huancabamba depression, which includes the Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and the Pagaibamba Protection Forest. Historically, the species has been recorded in Venezuela, in the vicinities of El Tama National Park, opposite the north Santander State of Colombia. However, there is no recent evidence ofits occurrence in the area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera in Colombia, between Parque Natural Las Hermosas and Parque Natural Nevado del Huila, where large tracts of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. The Mountain Tapir is now extinct in much of its former range. The major threat to the Mountain Tapir throughoutits range is human population growth in the Andean region. People settling in the region need land, consumables, and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction. Mountain Tapir population declines have been estimated to be greater than 50% in the past three generations (33 years). It has been predicted that that there will be a decline of at least 20% in the next two generations (22 years). The low reproductive rates and slow population growth characteristic of tapir species, coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation and hunting, are the major factors contributing to population declines. Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and paramosto cattle ranching and agricultural lands. There is significant hunting pressure on this species. It is extremely rare to encounter an area with Mountain Tapirs where they are not being overhunted. Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (e.g. backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets) and domestic artifacts such as carpets and covers for beds. In addition, poachers sell tapir skins and feet for medicinal purposes. Additional threats include the development of hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks. Road construction is a major threat in Puracé National Park, Colombia. There has also been widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining patches of Mountain Tapir habitat, which leads to competition for food resources and a potential risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle. Cattle have been observed forming reproducing herds in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing Mountain Tapirs to abandon areas north of Sangay Volcano. Information from other areas where the species is found (Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary in Peru, and Natural Parks in Colombia) indicates that the same problem with cattle is occurring there, too, and negatively affecting the species. Other threats include cattle roundups, which can result in increased hunting of the tapirs; poppy growing and eradication; and guerilla warfare in Colombia. The presence of guerillas may benefit the tapirs by halting settlement of some areas, but most local biologists feel that the overall impact on the conservation of Mountain Tapirs is negative. In addition, a mining project in northern Peru threatens to destroy the headwater cloud forest and paramo habitat of a scant population of Mountain Tapirs. It has been estimated that fewer than 2500 mature individuals still remain in the wild. The Mountain Tapir population in Peru has been estimated to be approximately 450 individuals. There is no connectivity between the northern and southern Mountain Tapir populations in Peru. The area of suitable habitat for the Mountain Tapir inside National Parks in Colombia is 13% ofthe total area where tapirsare still found. In the Andes of Colombia, there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera de los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Puracé, and Sumapaz). Legal protection of the speciesis in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, but law enforcement is not effective.</p> <p>Bibliography. Acosta et al. (1996), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Davalos (2001), Diaz et al. (2008), Downer (1996, 2001, 2003), Hershkovitz (1954), Lizcano (2006), Lizcano &amp; Cavelier (2000a, 2000b, 2004), Lizcano &amp; Sissa (2003), Lizcano, Cavelier &amp; Mangini (2001), Lizcano, Guarnizo et al. (2006), Lizcano, Mangini et al. (2001), Lizcano, Medici et al. (2005), Lizcano, Pizarro et al. (2002), Medici (2001, 2010), Ministerio del Medio Ambiente de Colombia (2002), Schauenberg (1968, 1969), Schipper et al. (2008), Semple (2000), Suarez-Mejia &amp; Lizcano (2002), Thornback &amp; Jenkins (1982), Tirira (1999).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/039CED53FFC5FF8AFAB221BE16799315	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tapiridae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 182-204, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721161
039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604.text	039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tapirus indicus Desmarest 1819	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Malayan Tapir</p> <p>Tapirus indicus</p> <p>French: Tapir de Malaisie / German: Schabrackentapir / Spanish: Tapir malayo</p> <p>Other common names: Asian Tapir, Indian Tapir, Malay Tapir</p> <p>Taxonomy. Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819,</p> <p>Malaysia, Malay Peninsula.</p> <p>Recent studies have suggested including it in the genus Acrocordia. Considered monotypic here, although an all-black form from Sumatra was named brevetianus on the basis of two individuals.</p> <p>Distribution. Malayan Tapirs occur in two disjunct and isolated populations, one on mainland SE Asia in peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar, and the other in the S &amp; C Sumatra, in Indonesia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 250-300 cm, tail less than 10 cm, shoulder height 100-130 cm; weight 280-400 kg. Malayan Tapirs are the largest ofall tapir species. In fact, the Malayan Tapir is one of the largest herbivores of the South-east Asian rainforest, with only wild cattle species, rhinos, and elephants surpassing it in size. The Malayan Tapir can be easily identified by its color pattern. A white saddle starts behind the front legs and extends over the back to the tail. The contrasting colors form a disruptive pattern that blends the animal with its environment and makes it more difficult for predators to recognize it as potential prey. Completely black individuals have been photographed by camera-traps, particularly in Sumatra and Malaysia. Young Malayan Tapirs have length-wise stripes and pale spots; the white saddle only starts to show after approximately 70 days. It takes approximately 5-6 months for the last remains of the juvenilestripes to completely disappear. Although Malayan Tapirs do not have the crest seen on Lowland Tapirs, the skin on the back of the head and nape is nearly 2-3 cm thick, presumably for protection from predator fangs. It also protects the neck when the tapir is moving through dense undergrowth. The proboscis of the Malayan Tapir is longer and stronger than that of its Latin American relatives. Malayan Tapirs have a well-developed sense of smell and hearing and can move with great speed through dense undergrowth. Interestingly, it has been observed that they can escape predators by going under water and staying submerged for considerable lengths of time.</p> <p>Habitat. Malayan Tapirs are found predominantly in tropical lowland moist forests and occur in both primary and mature secondary forests offering good cover. In the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand tapirs range from 100 m to 1500 m in alttude, and in Sumatra, tapirs may reach an altitude of 1500 m, or possibly 2000 m when crossing a ridge. They are not found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,likely because of the more seasonal climate and harsher dry season of the forest in these areas. In Thailand, tapirs are associated with a variety of forest types including dry dipterocarp, mixed deciduous, dry evergreen, and hill evergreen. Tapirs move into evergreen forest during the dry season when food is scarce and forestfires are present. They return to the dry dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest in the rainy season when sprouts of leaves and twigs emerge. Although Malayan Tapirs are generally considered to be lowland animals, they do travel a long way up mountains. In Indonesia, they inhabit lowland areas during the dry season and move to mountain areas during the wet season. Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected. The Malayan Tapir habitat in Indonesia has been described as humid, swampy, densejungle with an understory of shrubby plants and grassy meadows bordering streams. In southern Sumatra, researchers found the highest densities of tapirs in undisturbed swamp areas and lowland forests on well-drained soil. The same researchers further stated that tapir densities were lower in early-stage successional forest than in late-stage successional forest that was formerly logged. Similarly, in the Jambi Province of southern Sumatra, a study showed that undisturbed areas were preferred over disturbed areas; however, signs of their presence were abundant in forest fringes as well as logged or otherwise disturbed forest, and sometimes these animals wandered into rubber and oil palm plantations. In Bengkulu, Sumatra, tapirs are considered to be a problem species for stripping bark from rubber trees. The Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) inventories show that Malayan Tapirs are found within a 5 km radius of major cities like Seremban, Kuantan, and Temerloh. Another important aspect of their habitat use is that saltlicks apparently are visited once or twice a month, preferably with the new and the full moon. Malayan Tapirs generally stay in the vicinity of water. They like to spend a considerable time in the water and often defecate there. Several individuals have been rescued after falling into village wells or getting stuck in mud wallows.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Malayan Tapirs are selective browsers, concentrating their diet on young leaves and growing twigs. Preferred food plants mostly (42%) belong to the plant families Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae. Most of the plants consumed are woody and only a few herbaceous plants are consumed. In addition to foliage, Malayan Tapirs consume considerable amounts of fruit that they pick up from the ground. During feeding they sometimes push over small trees and break smaller sapling stems and branches in orderto get to the leaves and twigs. The heights at which they break stems were found to range between 0-8 m and 1-4 m. Feeding is not concentrated in particular locations. Suitable leaves and fruits appear to be eaten as encountered. Whereasit was reported by one source that their preferred food plants are characteristic of forest fringe and secondary growth, another source stated that the only feeding signs were found on understory plants in the primary rainforest. More than 115 species of plants are known to be eaten by Malayan Tapirs. Approximately 75% of these plants comprised 27 species and these are considered to be the most highly preferred food items. In Thailand, 39 species of plants were preferred. Their diet comprised 86-5% leaves, 8:1% fruit, and 5-4% leaf/twig matter. The most common plant species consumed by Malayan Tapirs in Sumatra are Symplocos, and Asplenium, Artocarpus, and Durio are occasionally eaten in secondary forests. Some herbaceous plants (Curculigo latifolia) and low-growing succulents (Homalomena and Phyllagathis rotundifolia) are also consumed, as is club moss (Selaginella willdenonii). The saplings of Baccaurea parviflora are browsed heavily.</p> <p>Breeding. There is very little data about the reproduction of Malayan Tapirs in the wild. Adult females usually produce a single offspring after a gestation period of 13-14 months (390-410 days). In May 2007, a female held at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre (MTCC) at the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve in Malaysia gave birth to twin calves, one male and one female. This was the first recorded twinning in the species. To model the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild, data from captivity have been used to estimate reproductive parameters. Captive females return to a cyclic estrus during lactation, but allow males to mount 153 days, on average, after giving birth. Mating was once observed in a captive pair on five consecutive occasions, averaging 29-4 days (range 29-31) between copulations, suggesting interestrous intervals of about 30 days. The earliest known mating ages are three years for males and average 2-8 (range 2-3-3) years for females. The earliest recorded conception by a female Malayan Tapir, at Saint Louis Zoo in the USA, occurred at 36 months, although females have mated as early as 31-32 months of age. The life span is about 30 years. A Malayan Tapir Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop held in 2003 modelled the dynamics of Malayan Tapir populations in the wild. Considering that natural situations impose a toll on growth and achieving sexual maturity, it was assumed that in the wild both sexes are capable of reproducing for the first time at age five. Maximum age of reproduction in the wild was estimated to be 24 (+ 2) years for both sexes. The generation length of wild Malayan Tapirs was estimated to be twelve years. A female Malayan Tapir could potentially bring up some 5-15 young in her lifetime. Zoo records from the Zoo Negara, Malaysia, show birth rates with a 1:1 sex ratio.</p> <p>Activity patterns. A Malayan Tapir camera-trap study in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia, found the tapirs to be strictly nocturnal, with an activity pattern that peaks at 19:00 h, when their only possible predator, the Sumatran Tiger, is least active. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village, West Sumatra, noted an activity peak at 22:00 h. Tapirs studied in Taman Negara in Malaysia were observed to browse occasionally during the daytime hours but were mostly encountered atrest.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. A telemetry study on Malayan Tapirs in Taman Negara, Malaysia, revealed a very large home range size of 12-75 km?.</p> <p>The home range of one of the monitored males overlapped the home ranges of several other individuals. An area of 0-52 km?® was occupied over a period of 27 days, during which time the male associated with a female and her young. The average straight line distance traveled per day by a male was 0-32 km. A more recent telemetry study in Krau Wildlife Reserve, also in Malaysia, estimated a home range of approximately 10-15 km?®. One ofthe study animals moved within a range of 70 km? Malayan Tapir density estimates appear to be lower when compared to the three Latin American tapir species. In Thailand, nine individuals were observed in an area of approximately 256 km?, resulting in approximately 0-035 ind/km?In southern Sumatra, the density of tapirs has been estimated to range from 0-3 ind/km? to 0-44 ind/km? in undisturbed swamp forests and lowland forests on well-drained soil, and 0-02 ind/km? in more hilly and mountainous areas in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, also in Sumatra, Malayan Tapir density based on tapir signs on line-transects and camera-traps was 0-15 ind/km?. A more recent camera-trap study in the Taratak village in Sumatra resulted in a density estimate of 0-5 ind/km?. Several camera-trap studies have noted that Malayan Tapirs are predominantly solitary. A camera-trap study in Krau Wildlife Reserve revealed that they disperse substantial distances and that they visit saltlicks significantly more often than any other animal speciesin the reserve. There have been sporadic records of Malayan Tapirs crossing palm oil estates as the animals travelled from one forested area to the next.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The species previously was listed as occurring in northern India, southern China, southern Cambodia, and possibly southern Vietnam. There was an authenticsounding record from Laos in 1902. Further investigation of historical records and other indications from Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, northern Thailand, and even southern China have found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. There is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although there are fossil remains from Vietnam and China that indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. In Thailand, Malayan Tapirs are found along the western border, on the peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north. In Myanmar, the species is found restricted to the Tenasserim region, a narrow strip of territory between Thailand and the Indian Ocean.The speciesis listed as Endangered due to an ongoing population decline caused by habitat loss and fragmentation and increasing hunting pressure throughout its range. Malayan Tapirs are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation. Population declines were estimated to have been greater than 50% in the past three generations (36 years), driven primarily by large-scale conversion of habitat to palm oil plantations and other human land-use. The rate of reduction in population is inferred to be proportional to the reduction of the tropical rainforest area in South-east Asia over the same period; however, it may be higher due to indirect threats. The population on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, historically the main stronghold of the species,is considered to be the most endangered because of largescale habitat destruction. Approximately 60% of the forest cover of Sumatra has been lost over the past 15 years. As a consequence, more than 50% of the Malayan Tapir habitat is thought to have been lost, with much of the remaining forest either outside of protected areas or outside of the range of the species. Even in the protected areas, illegal logging continues. Less than 10% of the suitable habitat has been preserved, and much of that is degraded. In Thailand, remaining populations are isolated in protected areas and forest fragments, which are mostly discontinuous and offer little opportunity for genetic exchange. In Malaysia, forest loss is extremely severe, especially because of expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, the current forestry trend seems to have stabilized at approximately 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Myanmar, 3-2% of the land is protected and most tapir habitat lies outside of these protected areas. Although hunting has been a minor threat to the species in the past, it seems to be increasing as people are beginning to see the Malayan Tapir as a food source. Historically, tapirs were not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailand or Myanmar, since their flesh was considered distasteful, and some hill tribes believed that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted. However, some recent localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting could become a cause for concern, as already reduced and isolated populations would be at great risk for extirpation. Another problem is the removal of tapirs for zoos in Indonesia. In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru Zoo, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Fifty tapirs are reported to have passed through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993. Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas. Lastly, there have been reports of tapir road-kills in Malaysia. Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size of Malayan Tapirs. In 2008, the population in Malaysia was estimated to be approximately 1500-2000 individuals. The speciesis legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including a number of National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. Thailand supports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in South-east Asia, comprising 17% of land area. Malayan Tapirs are recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country, including transboundary forests in border areas and large isolated forest remnants. The transboundary forests represent the most extensive contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country. They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes twelve protected areas and covers over 18,730 km?, including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex, which covers 4373 km? mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border. The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1850 km? of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malay border. All areas are contiguous with large forest areas on opposite sides of the border. Recent survey efforts suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas. Thus, most existing Malayan Tapir habitat in Thailand is protected and the future for conservation of the species in that country is positive. In Myanmar, Malayan Tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border. Two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims, Tanintharyi National Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary. If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future. Currently, civil unrest in Myanmar makes these areas inaccessible for wildlife surveys.</p> <p>Bibliography. Abdul Ghani (2009), Barongi (1986, 1993), Blouch (1984), Brooks et al. (2007), CITES (2005), Duckworth et al. (1999), DWNP (2003), Ferris (1905), Fountaine (1962), Harper (1945), Holden et al. (2003), Holmes (2001), Kaewsirisuk (2001), Kawanishi (2002), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1988), Lynam (1996, 1999, 2000, 2003), Lynam et al. (2008), Medici (2001), Medici et al. (2003), Medway (1974), Meijaard (1998), Pournelle (1966), Prayurasiddhi et al. (1999), Read (1986), Santiapillai &amp; Ramono (1990), Schipper et al. (2008), Steinmetz et al. (2008), Traeholt (2002), WCS (2001, 2003), Williams (1978, 1979), Williams &amp; Petrides (1980), Yin (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/039CED53FFC4FF88FA5021E814549604	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tapiridae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 182-204, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721161
