identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4.text	038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Suidae Gray 1821	<div><p>Family SUIDAE (PIGS)</p> <p>• Small to medium-sized mammals with large head, elongated snout ending in a mobile, disk-like nose, short neck, prominent ears, small eyes, robust jaws with long canines, strong legs, small tail, and bristly coat.</p> <p>• 60-250 cm.</p> <p>• Palearctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Austral asian Regions.</p> <p>• From near-desert conditions to closed forest in tropical, subtropical, and boreal regions.</p> <p>• 6 genera, 17 species,at least 45 extant taxa.</p> <p>• 2 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553B56358D4B0D521940FAB4	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.text	038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babyrousa celebensis (Deninger 1910)	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Sulawesi Babirusa</p> <p>Babyrousa celebensis</p> <p>French: Babiroussa des Célebes / German: Sulawesi-Hirscheber / Spanish: Babirusa de Célebes</p> <p>Taxonomy. Babyrusa celebensis Deninger, 1910,</p> <p>Sulawesi.</p> <p>Phylogenetic studies suggest that babirusas diverged from other pigs in the Miocene some 10-19 million years ago, which could well be the time when they became isolated on Sulawesi. The land connection between southern Sulawesi and Borneo was severed some 50 million years ago, so this suggests that a later land connection existed between Sundaland and Sulawesi, unless babirusas dispersed through rafting or swimming. The presence of two other suid genera in Sulawesi (Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off from the main stock of Suidae at different times, indicates several invasions of ancestral suid types to Sulawesi over a great length of time. The genus is considered to be monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or, alternatively, to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. Until recently, all babirusas were classified as a single species, B. babyrussa. However, the genus has now been split into several species, and the nominate scientific name is restricted to the Moluccan Babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands. B. celebensis, the Sulawesi Babirusa, is the best known babirusa, and the only species for which substantial ecological and behavioral information is available. B. celebensis specifically refers to animals from the north of the island, and the taxonomic identity of the individuals from central, eastern and south-eastern Sulawesi remains undecided. No subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Distribution. Sulawesi I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight up to 100 kg. B. celebensis is characterized by its sparse or absent body hair, a nearly hairless tail tuft, and long, relatively thick upper canines that emerge vertically, converge slightly, and curl dorsally in a circle. The upper canines of males are generally long and thick. They merge vertically and do not cross the lower canines in lateral view. The skulls of B. celebensis are longer than the two other species. They are relatively narrower than one specimen from central Sulawesi, for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. The lower (M, and M,) and upper (M* and M?) molars in B. celebensis are longer than in the other two species. Unlike most other pig species, babirusas do not have the typical adaptations for rooting. The nose lacks the rostral bone that in other pigs provides support for the tough connective tissue plate of the rhinarium. Reanalyses of the soft tissue anatomy of the limbs and digestive tract of B. celebensis have revealed mistakes of identification in earlier work. This has reversed the earlier conclusion that babirusas were constructed in a significantly different way from pigs (Susspp.); in general the muscular anatomies are similar and the stomach of babirusas does not resemble that of ruminants.</p> <p>Habitat. B. celebensis inhabits tropical rainforest. Whereas previously the animal had been reported to occur in low-lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that the species is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground. Although often associated with swamp and riverine areas, there is still insufficient data to be conclusive on the aquatic affinities of the species. The species frequently uses mineral salt licks.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet and feeding behavior in B. celebensis remain poorly studied in the wild, but observations on captive animals provide a useful picture of their potential diet. The anatomical structure of the stomach and digestive tract suggest that B. celebensis is omnivorous. In zoos, adults ofthis species have been observed to chase, catch, and eat small mammals and birds, implying that they may show similar behavior in the wild. Observations of both wild and captive individuals suggest that the species consumes a wide variety ofleaf, root, and fruit material, with fruit especially important. Their jaws and teeth are strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. Not unlike the Bornean Bearded Pig (Sus b. barbatus), the apparent requirement of B. celebensis for fruit-bearing trees as a component ofits environment has been implied, because as soon as mature trees were cleared by forestry operations or conversion to food crop production, the babirusas were no longer to be found in the area. Whether this is a result of changes in food resources or increased hunting pressure and disturbance from logging crews has not yet been clarified. B. celebensis forages for food items on the ground, under logs and stones, in wet areas, and on bushes and trees. Animals will stand with their forelimbs against tree trunks to reach hanging leaves and fruit, and will even balance on their hindlimbs to pluck leaves from the trees.</p> <p>Breeding. In zoological collections, B. celebensis may become sexually mature as early as 5-10 months of age. However,it is likely that the age of sexual maturity in the wild is influenced by a number of factors, including the level of nutrition. Precise data do not yet exist, but animals are unlikely to breed in the wild before they are one year old. Estrous cycle lengths of 28-42 days have been recorded, but recent endocrine studies suggest a narrower range of 35-37 days. Captive females generally re-cycle within three months after the birth of their young. Estrus lasts 2-3 days, and the female is not receptive to males at other times. Gestation length is usually 155-158 days, though up to 171 days has been reported. The body weight of the sow increases during gestation. The normallitter size in B. celebensis is one or two, but a low incidence of triplet births has been recorded both in zoos and in the wild, and a litter of four fetuses has been reported in utero in a wild female. Neonatal B. celebensis are uniformly brown in color, small in size, and weigh less than 800 g at birth. The female usually has four mammary glands, but an additional pair has sometimes been reported. Although females can have a life span of as long as 24 years in captivity,it is unlikely that animals in the wild live as long, perhaps no more than 7-12 years. In zoos, B. celebensis sows produce young at all times of the year, and may produce two litters within a twelve-month period. However, since it seems likely that diet or seasonal factors would normally influence interbirth intervals, litters may be produced less frequently in the wild. Observation in North Sulawesi revealed adult females accompanied by subadult animals as well as juveniles. However, there was no way to establish whether or not these youngsters represented the progeny of consecutive litters from the same female. Studies of the agonistic behavior of B. celebensis have so far revealed no evidence that the adult males use their teeth during male-male interactions. The ultimate form of agonistic behavior is described as “boxing,” and involves two males raising themselves off the ground until both are standing on their hindlegs facing one another, each leaning and paddling against the chest and shoulders of his opponent. Their snouts are held as high as possible. Females do not employ the same strategy.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Based on observations of captive animals, B. celebensis appears to be mostly diurnal. These animals slept at night, which is consistent with the general lack of activity at night recorded in North Sulawesi. About an hour before sunrise at 06:00 h, individuals began to wake up and move about. Voiding of fecal material and urine occurs at this time, and the animals appeared to prefer to defecate under branches and fallen tree trunks. Foraging extended throughout the day, but occupied a larger proportion of the time in the morning. From about mid-morning onwards an increasing proportion of the time was taken up with non-foraging activities. The animals were either wallowing or lying down. Both in the wild and in captivity, males have been observed to wallow more often than females.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The information available from field and captive studies indicates B. celebensis is a social species. Groups of up to 13 have been observed in the rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas, and salt licks. Rarely aggregations as large as 46 individuals comprising several distinct groups have congregated at salt licks. Most (84%) of all sightings of solitary animals were of adult males. Single adult males were seen with single adult females, but never with two or more females unless young animals were present. Adult females were rarely seen without company; they were sometimes found together with other adult animals, but most often they were with young babirusas. Of the 226 groups studied, 84 contained adult females and young. Two thirds (56) of these groups had no adult males present. Very little is known about the ranging behavior of B. celebensis. Field observations suggest that the adult males have home ranges that overlap with those of a number of other adult males. Density estimates in two protected areas where the species still occurred in 2003 varied from 4-3-11-8 ind/km? to 0-7-4-1 ind/km?. Like other pigs, babirusas evidently swim well. A single adult male was reported approximately 500 m from the shore of a large lake in central Sulawesi. It is not certain whether this individual was B. celebensis, but it is likely that all babirusa species can swim and cover relatively large distances.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I, although international trade in this species is not thought to be an important issue. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Adult B. celebensis appear to have few,if any, natural predators. There are no large native mammalian carnivores on Sulawesi, and the most likely non-human predators are probably large snakes and crocodiles. We here follow The IUCN Red List and treat all individuals occurring on Sulawesi, as well as those previously known from the Muna, Buton, and Lembeh Islands as belonging to B. celebensis, pending resolution of the taxonomy. B. celebensis has been much reduced on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, primarily due to overhunting, and its distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, and the Panua Nature Reserve, all of which are in the western half of the northern peninsula. The species still occurs in central Sulawesi and the eastern and south-eastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking. The species is unlikely to remain on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys, and its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain. The small numbers of young born suggest that the species is not adapted to a high rate of natural predation. However, hunting by humans with snares, nets, spears, and dogs has undoubtedly been an important factor since prehistoric times, and widespread snare trapping constitutes the main threat to the remaining populations of B. celebensis in North Sulawesi and, more recently, elsewhere in Sulawesi. B. celebensis is apparently not hunted specifically for its own meat, but represents a by-catch to the hunting of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (Sus celebensis). Therefore, the population of B. celebensis in the wild is being placed under severe and increasing pressure by the market demand for wild pig meat. The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation. Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75%. The genus Babyrousa was accordedfull protection under Indonesian law in 1931. B. celebensis occurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi, including Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserve, and others.</p> <p>Bibliography. Andreescu &amp; Murariu (1993), Bosma &amp; de Haan (1981), Bowles (1986), Bowles et al. (1993), Clason (1976), Clayton &amp; MacDonald (1999), Clayton &amp; Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (2000), Groves (1980, 1985), Hooijer (1975), Houston et al. (2001), Lee, Gorog et al. (2005), Lee, O'Brien et al. (1999), Leus (1996), Leus &amp; Vercammen (1996), Leus, Bland et al. (1996), Leus, Bowles et al. (1992), Macdonald (1991), Macdonald &amp; Leus (1995), Macdonald, Bowles et al. (1993), Macdonald, Burton &amp; Leus (2008), MacKinnon (1981), Manansang et al. (1996), Meijaard &amp; Groves (2002a, 2002b), Melisch (1994, 1995), Milner-Gulland (2001), Milner-Gulland &amp; Clayton (2002), Mohr (1958), Patry et al. (1995), Peters (1985), Rajchl (2007), Randi et al. (1996), Rice (1988), Riley (2002), Sody (1949), Van Wees et al. (2000), Wemmer &amp; Watling (1982), Wiles et al. (2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553956368E100EEC141EFD47	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.text	038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babyrousa babyrussa (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Moluccan Babirusa</p> <p>Babyrousa babyrussa</p> <p>French: Babiroussa des Moluques / German: Molukken-Hirscheber / Spanish: Babirusa de Molucas</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus babyrussa Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>“Borneo” (= Buru Island, Indonesia).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Moluccas Archipelago, in Sula ls (Mangole &amp; Taliabu) and Buru.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 85-110 cm, tail 20-32 cm, shoulder height 65-80 cm; weight 43-100 kg. B. babyrussa is a relatively small species, with long, thick body hair and well-developed tail tuft. The upper canines of males are short and slender and cross the lower caninesin lateral view. The upper canines tend to diverge or be subparallel, but they may be weakly convergent. Based on tooth measurements, B. babyrussa is similar to B. bolabatuensis, a presumably extinct form described from subfossil remains retrieved from various sites in the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi.</p> <p>Habitat. Buru’s natural vegetation is largely tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest, with tropical montane rainforest occurring above 800 m above sea level; the only known exception to this pattern is a complex patchwork of monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savanna in the north and north-east section of the island, the result of repeated anthropogenic burnings. No surveys have been done on the habitat use of babirusas on Buru Island, but the local Rana people report that babirusas are most often found in rocky habitat in hilly areas and mountains.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. [Local people on Buru report that babirusas primarily feed on leaves, roots, and fruits in the forest, but never enter people’s gardens to feed on crops, unlike the other pig species on Buru, which causes considerable damage to crops. The species is also said to feed along the shoreline when the tide is out.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing is known about the breeding behavior ofthis species, but it is likely to be similar to other Babyrousa spp.</p> <p>Activity patterns. On Buru, B. babyrussa is mostly seen during the morning and late afternoons, but rarely around midday.</p> <p>Movements, Home ma@ nnd Social organintion. On Buru, babirusas are reported to be mostlv solitary or may occasionally be encountered in small groups. When in a group they regularlv emit a long and high pitched sound described as “suirii....suuuuuiiiriiii. "</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The speciesis reported to be extinct on Sanana Island (formerly Xulla Besi). Some workers seem to believe babirusas were introduced to these islands, though if this is true these same workers provide no indication of their likely place of origin. Unfortunately, the systematic relationships of babirusas from adjacent eastern and south-eastern parts of Sulawesi remain unknown, so it is also not possible to assess their presumed or potential close affinities to B. babyrussa. During extensive survey efforts on Buru in 1995, no direct evidence of babirusas was found, although a pair of pig mandibles found inland from Fogi, in logged forest at an elevation of 670 m, indicated that the species had been recently hunted. Village interviews in 1997 about the species’ presence suggested that on Buru its range had become fragmented by the 1990s,although locally the animals were still relatively common. The species reportedly was not uncommon on the slopes of Gunung Kepala Mada, the highest mountain on Buru. No surveys have been conducted since, however, and the present status is unclear. The people of Buru differentiate babirusas from other suid species, though it is presently unclear whether any other suids occurring on Buru are of S. celebensis or feral S. scrofa origin, nor whether any such populations (assuming they exist) are naturally occurring or introduced forms.With half the people of Buru being Christian and therefore willing to eat pork, hunting pressure on pigs is likely to be high. The Rana people of Buru frequently hunt babirusas with dogs and snares. Although the northern portions of Buru island have been degraded by repeated burning and the coastal lowlands have been cleared, the remaining forest forms two large, contiguous blocks.</p> <p>Bibliography. Deninger (1909), Groves (1980), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard &amp; Groves (2002a, 2002b), Sody (1949), Tomie &amp; Persulessy (1996), Verbelen (2003).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553856368EBE0C7B1244F3C2	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.text	038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Babyrousa togeanensis Sody 1949	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Togian Babirusa</p> <p>Babyrousa togeanensis</p> <p>French: Babiroussa des Togian / German: Togian-Hirscheber / Spanish: Babirusa de Togian</p> <p>Taxonomy. Babirussa babyrousa togeanensis Sody, 1949,</p> <p>“Malengi island, Togean group, Res. Manado, N. Celebes ” (Indonesia, N Sulawesi, Togean Isls, Malenge Isl).</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Togian Archipelago (Batudaka, Togian, Talatakoh &amp; Malenge Is); recently, their tracks also were reported from the small Kadidiri I, N of Togian I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. No body measurements are available, but based on skull measurements B. fogeanensis appears the largest of the three babirusa species. It has Sparser, shorter body hair than Moluccan Babirusa (B. babyrussa), and in contrast to Sulawesi Babirusa (B. celebensis), the tail tuft is well developed. The upper canines of males are this species’ most distinctive feature: they are short, slender, rotated forwards, and always converge. The frontal furrows on the skull are always shallow, with sloping edges. It is endemic to the Togian Islands, an island group that has been separated from the adjacent eastern arm of Sulawesi for c.12,000 years. This suggests that the babirusas from the eastern arm of Sulawesi should be closely related to the Togian animals, but an absence of specimens makes this impossible to test. It cannot be ruled out that Togian Babirusas were introduced to the Togian Islands by people, but just as likely, the species swam to these islands. Even though B. togeanensis is the largest of the babirusa species, it was initially characterized by its small teeth, especially the third molar. Further study showed that compared to the other species, B. togeanensis has relatively large premolars, especially P,, P,, and P°.</p> <p>Habitat. Babirusas generally inhabit tropical rainforest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. The natural vegetation on the Togian Islands consists of wet forests of variable types, frequently differing from one island to another, and ranging from monsoon to evergreen. B. togeanensis has also been sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub on former slash-and-burn cultivation fields, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches. On Malenge and Kadidiri Islands, the species is most frequently seen moving through coconut plantations.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. B. togeanensis reportedly feeds on rhizomes, fallen fruits (Pangium edule, Dracontomelon sp., Mangiferasp., Artocarpus sp., Spondias dulcis) and also tamarinds and cacao, as well as annual herbs and vegetables. The species is also reported to feed on coconut, but it is unclear whether it eats the shoots of young trees or the fallen fruits.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing is known about the breeding behavior of B. togeanensis, but it is assumed to be similar to the much better known B. celebensis. Litter size as observed by local farmers is 2-3 young.</p> <p>Activity patterns. During interview surveys on the Togian Islands, most respondents (68:2%) reported encountering B. togeanensis in the morning, between 06:00 h and 10:00 h. The reported observations of the species included various activities during that time, such as foraging, mating, wallowing, and resting.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. In interviews, 37% of the respondents mentioned that B. togeanensis is a solitary animal, whereas 29-6% of those questioned reported that the species is gregarious, usually seen in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter. Group sizes of more than five individuals were reported by 29-5% of the respondents; these groups typically were composed of an adult male with multiple females and a litter.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km?, its distribution is severely fragmented, there is continuing decline in the extent and quality ofits habitat, its population is estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals, a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals has been observed, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Babirusas on the Togian Islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forestfires, to disturbance by humans, and to predation by dogs. They are occasionally hunted by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops. Hunting for food occurs only in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998, two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire. No large animal carcasses were found and babirusas have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species. In 1978, the babirusa population on the Togian Islands was estimated in the region of 500-1000 individuals. Recent estimates place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Local residents questioned recently did not agree on population size, giving ranges from fewer than 100 to more than 1000, but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline.</p> <p>Bibliography. Akbar et al. (2007), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Hart (2009), Ito et al. (2005), Macdonald et al. (2008), Meijaard &amp; Groves (2002a, 2002b), Selmier (1983).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553856368EB103FF1690F4D0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.text	038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin 1788)	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Common Warthog</p> <p>Phacochoerus africanus</p> <p>French: Phacochere d'Afrique / German: \Warzenschwein / Spanish: Facocero de sabana</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus africanus Gmelin, 1788,</p> <p>“Habitat in Africa a capite viridi as caput bonae spei”; restricted to Senegal, “ Cape Verd [Verde].”</p> <p>Four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.a.africanusGmelin,1788—NsavannaandSahelregion,fromMauritaniatoEthiopia.Pa.aelianiCretzschmar,1828—Eritrea,Djibouti,andNSomalia.</p> <p>P.a.massaicusLonnberg,1908—E&amp;CAfrica,fromNUgandaandSKenya,E&amp;SDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Tanzania,Zambia,Malawi,andNMozambique.</p> <p>P. a. sundevallii L.onnberg, 1908 — S Africa, including SW Angola, N &amp; E Namibia, N Botswana, Zimbabwe, S Mozambique, and parts of South Africa.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 125-150 cm (males), 105-140 cm (females), tail 35-50 cm), shoulder height 55-85 cm; weight 60-150 kg (males), 50-75 kg (females). Thisis a pig with long legs and short neck. Proportionally it has a massive head with broad and flattened muzzle and snout, and prominent curved tusks flaring upwards. The upper tusks measure an average 25-30 cm in length in adult males (record 60 cm) whereas the lower tusks are only 13 cm. The grayish body is barrel shaped, with a hairless skin that can take on differing hues of gray or brown depending on the color of the soil in its holes or wallows. A dorsal mane of yellowish to jet black hairsis longest on the shoulders and neck. A narrow, tufted tail is held vertically when trotting. In many individuals, whitish bristles on the lower jaw form conspicuous “sideburns.” Three pairs of facial warts of different shape and thickness, made of fibrous tissue, are situated on the muzzle, along the jaw, and under the eyes. In males, the infraocular warts can grow up to 15 cm and have a protective function. They can take on various orientations, but are always conical; only the Desert Warthog (PF. aethiopicus) displays curled down jugal warts. Warts are less developed in females, as are the tusks and preorbital glands. Common Warthogs usually trot in a quick, springy stride, with the head held high and the back rigid. When grazing or rooting, they often drop on their “knees” instead ofstretching their short neck. Callosities characteristic of carpal joints on the forelegs are observed on embryos. These observations support evolutionary theories of “anticipatory” adaptation or of the heredity of acquired characters. Females have four pairs of mammae. Dental formulaisI1/3,C1/1,P3/2,M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Whereas the Desert Warthog is characterized by an absence of functional incisors, Common Warthogs always have two upper incisors and usually six functional lower incisors as in the adult dentition of most pigs.</p> <p>Habitat. Common Warthogs are the only African pigs that are typical open-country species, with morphological and behavioral adaptations typical of grazers. Generally they are confined to various types of savanna grasslands, open bushlands, and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water. Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, deserts, and steppes, Common Warthogs are present in aridlands near the Danakil desert and Bale Mountain forests (Ethiopia) and in Djibouti forests. Abundance of Common Warthogs is probably linked to the availability of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) holes, as the warthogs need deep burrows for protection from predators as well as from fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Their bodies can obviously sustain a certain tolerance range, and they cope with high temperature by sheltering in shade, wallowing, and dust-bathing. Piglets are particularly vulnerable to cold and malnutrition during drought, which, together with predation and other factors, account for an over 50% mortality rate during the first year.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Common Warthogs have an omnivorous diet composed of grasses, roots, fruits, bark, fungi, eggs, and carrion, as well as small mammals, reptiles, and birds. The diet varies with seasonal availability of food items, although the species is very selective. Areas with abundant food resources like bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots can sustain large temporary congregations of animals. This opportunism and dietary versatility account for the Common Warthog’s successful survival strategy. They are powerful diggers, using both snout and hooves, but not tusks. When feeding, they often walk on their anterior knuckles with their hindquarters raised. They use their incisors to wrench grass stems or strip seedheads, and they excavate rhizomes and mineral-rich earth with the hard edge of their snout.</p> <p>Breeding. Both sexes reach puberty at 18 months. During the rut, boars locate estrous females by visiting burrows. Male fights consist of frontal-pushing, interlocking tusks, and hitting the opponent in the face or in the flanks. The mating system is promiscuous, with males roaming and mating with numerous females and females mating with more than one male. Where seasons are marked, breeding is seasonal, with females usually coming into estrus early in the dry season and farrowing at the beginning of the rainy season. Non-offspring nursing occurs. Gestation is 160-170 days and most common litter size is 2-3 (range: 1-8).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Common Warthogs are highly diurnal. They go underground before dark and sleep in abandoned burrows of Aardvarks or other animals. Males enterlast and commonly reverse in, with the head facing the opening, ready to fight an intruder or rush out as needed. To a certain extent, season and weather dictate their daytime activity, which includes a range of typical occupations like feeding, drinking, wallowing, rubbing against trees or termite mounds, and grooming. Feeding occurs mainly in early morning and late afternoon, but they also graze between irregular resting periods in the shade of bushy thickets or in mud wallows. Humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), crocodiles, and hyenas are the main predators, but Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) are also capable of catching small warthogs. Females are extremely aggressive and courageous when defending their piglets. It has been reported that Common Warthogs have inflicted deep and deadly wounds in Lions. Common Warthogs have been observed allowing Banded Mongooses (Mungos mungo) and ground hornbills (Bucorvus spp.) to groom them to remove ticks.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. On average, sounders move a distance of 7 km /day, and visit the same areas at about the same time. Their home range averages 174 ha (range: 64-374 ha) and both males and females tend to remain close to their natal area. Typical densities are 1-10 ind/km?® in protected areas, but local densities of up to 77 ind/km? were found on short grass in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. The social structure of Common Warthogs is one of small groups: solitary males or bachelor groups (45% of the population), matriarchal groups consisting of adult females with juveniles and/or yearlings, or yearling groups. Boars accompany sounders when females are in estrus. Females are temporarily on their own at farrowing time, but they commonly join up with other females and their young. Bonds between adult females and between mothers and daughters can be stable and last over several breeding cycles.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Common Warthogs occur in most protected areas in savanna zones. Expansion of the Sahel has resulted in a contraction of its range in the north and accounts forits decline in Mauritania and Niger. Because of their susceptibility to drought and predation, populations may easily be prone to local extinction. In the past, populations were greatly reduced by rinderpest in some countries.</p> <p>Bibliography. Child et al. (1968), Clough &amp; Hassam (1970), Cumming (1975, 2008, In Press), Deribe et al. (2008), Estes (1991), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Kunzel et al. (2004), Muwanika et al. (2007), Radke (1991), Somers (1997), Somers et al. (1995), Treydte, Bernasconi et al. (2006), Treydte, Halsdorf et al. (2006), Vercammen &amp; Mason (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553856318BBB03C6172AFB10	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.text	038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Phacochoerus aethiopicus Pallas 1766	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Desert Warthog</p> <p>Phacochoerus aethiopicus</p> <p>French: Phacochére du désert / German: Wistenwarzenschwein / Spanish: Facocero de desierto</p> <p>Taxonomy. Aper aethiopicus Pallas, 1766,</p> <p>“Promontoria Bona Spei advectus,” between Kaffraria and Great Namaqualand (South Africa, Eastern Cape Province), two hundred leagues from the Cape of Good Hope.</p> <p>Nominate subspecies aethiopicus (Pallas, 1766) from eastern Cape Province and upper Orange River, South Africa, is extinct. Only one extant subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Distribution. P. a. delamerei Lonnberg, 1909 — NW &amp; S Somalia, E Ethiopia, and E Kenya. The distribution is insufficiently known but accurately recorded from several areas, including N Somalia (W Somaliland), S Somalia (Jubaland), E Ethiopia (Ogaden), and E Kenya, from near sea level to ¢. 1400 m in C Kenya. Although thought to be restricted to arid environments, its range in Kenya has been found to extend S to Tsavo West National Park (W of Athi River and S of the Galana River). Formerly the species occurred in South Africa, in the former Cape Province and apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now extinct there.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. No body measurements have been recorded for Desert Warthogs. External appearance is generally similar to the Common Warthog (FP. africanus), but the Desert Warthog is slightly smaller in size and with fewer, shorter, and paler bristles. Depending on environmental conditions, there can be striking differences in body fatness between Desert Warthog populations. The skin is usually pale gray, but there is a wide variation in color due to mudand dust-bathing. Morphological differences between Desert Warthogs and Common Warthogs have been overlooked until recently, which suggests that no strikingly different features distinguish them in the field. However, adult Desert Warthogs are characterized by hook-shaped or drooping genal warts, tips of ears that bend backwards (which gives the impression that their contour is angular), swollen suborbital pouches under the eyes, and a shorter basioccipital region, which makes the head look “egg-shaped.” The head looks rather “diaboloshaped” in the Common Warthog. The skull is similar in proportions to that of the Common Warthog, but diagnostically distinguished by other cranial and dental characters. Sphenoidal pits in the floor of the neurocranium on each side of the vomer are enormously enlarged and opened out, deepening the vomerine ridge. The zygomatic arches are robust, with large sinuses forming a spherical inflation of the jugal. In the limited number of samples of Desert Warthog skulls that are available, lengths for the two sexes do not overlap, suggesting greater sexual dimorphism than in the Common Warthog. The upper incisors are always absent. The lower incisors are absent or reduced to four or fewer and are very small: they hardly protrude from the alveoli and are probably always concealed by gums. The third molars are also different: when all the enamel columns have begun to wear, no roots have yet formed, unlike the condition in the Common Warthog. At this stage, all the columns are of about the same length and are able to continue growing, extending the life of the tooth. Differences were also recorded between the two species in the shape of the canines: both lower and upper canines appear to be less curved in the Desert Warthog. The wear facet on the lower canine is differently placed, and the lower canines are less compressed. Dental formulais10/0-2,C1/1,P 3/2, M 3/3 (x2) = 26-30. Chromosome numberis unknown. DNA analysis has shown that aethiopicus and africanus belong to two genetically distinct lineages that diverged approximately 4-5 million years ago, in the early Pliocene.</p> <p>Habitat. The Desert Warthog is mainly a species of open arid regions. The distribution of the northern population lies within two vegetation types, “Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commuphora deciduous bushland and thicket” and “Somalia-Masai semi-desert grassland and shrubland.” These habitats range from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. Desert Warthogs prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Most records are from lowland areas below 200 m, a few are at higher elevations, but none are above 1000 m. The species is dependent on the availability of water and shade and occupies regions with rainfall of 100-600 mm per year. Areas with higher rainfall are avoided,as are the driest and hottest desert regions with rainfall less than 100 mm per year. Desert Warthogs are not present in the hot coastal zone of Somalia, the eastern tip of Ogaden, and most of the subdesert shrubland east of Lake Turkana. The harsh climatic conditions associated with this vegetation type suggest that the species could,in fact, be totally absent from a vast desert area between Lake Turkana and the Lorian Swamps in north-eastern Kenya. The Desert Warthog, albeit more specialized for extremely arid environments than the Common Warthog, is not a true desert animal.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. With its peculiar incisor-less morphology and other cranial features, the Desert Warthog is the most specialized living suid. Its diet is not known, and nothing is known ofits feeding habits and physiology. As the incisors are functionally absent, the lips and gumsare used to detach or pick up food items. The rootless third molars suggest an adaptation toward an abrasive diet.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Little is known. The species seems most active during the day, even during the hottest hours. Family sounders spend the night in burrows. In the valleys of south Somalia, they raid crops seasonally and consequently are persecuted.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Desert Warthogs are reported as locally abundant, living mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water. In Ethiopia, they are common in Ogaden and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns. Their dependency on water brings them close to human settlements, where they adapt their drinking routine to human water use patterns, and visit wells mainly in the morning, at daybreak and at sundown. In north-east Kenya and Somaliland, local herders complain about their presence because the warthogs compete with livestock for water and occasionally become aggressive: they have been reported to kill goats and sheep. Sometimes large numbers of Desert Warthogs are present (over 100 per village), but sudden fluctuations in the warthog population occur, which raises the question of a possible migration pattern.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. There are no major threats to the species. However, evenif they live in Muslim-dominated areas, they may be subject to local hunting for bushmeat and trade in their ivory tusks. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs further investigation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Culverwell et al. (2008), Ewer (1957), Grubb (1993), Grubb &amp; d'Huart (In Press), Grubb &amp; Oliver (1991), d'Huart &amp; Grubb (2001, 2005), d'Huart et al. (2008), de Jong et al. (2009), Lonnberg (1909), Randi et al. (2002), Wilhelmi et al. (2004).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553F56308B1D0A4D1367F7B3	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.text	038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas 1904	<div><p>6.</p> <p>Forest Hog</p> <p>Hylochoerus meinertzhageni</p> <p>French: Hylochere / German: Riesenwaldschwein / Spanish: Hilocero</p> <p>Other common names: Giant Forest Hog (meinertzhageni)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas, 1904,</p> <p>Kenya, Nandi Forest, near Kaimosi, 2134 m.</p> <p>The three subspecies provisionally recognized are differentiated on the basis of the dimensions and shape of their skull. The taxonomy of a fourth, the Ethiopian race, is still indefinite.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>H.m.meinertzhageniThomas,1904—EDRCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Uganda,Kenya,SSudan,andEthiopia.IthasnotreliablybeenrecordedfromTanzania.</p> <p>H.m.woriensisBouet&amp;Neuville,1930—discontinuouspresenceinGuinea,SierraLeone(?),Liberia,IvoryCoast,andGhana;possiblyalsoinGuineaBissau,andTogo.</p> <p>H. m. rimator Thomas, 1906 — SE Nigeria, W &amp; SE Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (extinct?), N Republic of the Congo, and N DR Congo.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 130-210 cm, tail 25-45 cm, shoulder height 75-110 cm; weight 140-275 kg (males) and 100-200 kg (females). Males are significantly larger than females in both weight and dimensions. Although the common name “Giant Forest Hog” is often used, western races ofthis species are not much larger than Bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), and only the East African animals are true giants. Their slatey gray skin is densely covered with coarse hair, which gets sparser with age. Adult pelage is coal black, with 15-20 cm long, stout bristles. There is a pale, erectile mane on the neck. The ventral pelage is sparse and grayish to black. The legs are robust, with large and rounded hooves. The long, tasseled tail is slender and flattened at its end, with sparse bristles implanted laterally. The massive head has white to yellowish “whiskers” on the jaw-line callosity. The small, pointed, leaf-shaped ears are fringed with black hairs. In males, the forehead is characterized by a large depression surrounded by five bony, hairless ridges. The species has large, swollen preorbital glands and prominent naked cheeks. The muzzle is flat, with thick tusks flaring outwards and a very broad nasal disc (up to 17 cm in diameter). The skull and facial musculature are adapted to a folivorous rather than an omnivorous diet. Females have four mammae. Dental formulaisl 1/3, Cl1/1,P2/1,M 3/5 (x2) = 30.</p> <p>Habitat. Like Red River Hogs (P. porcus), Forest Hogs are more dependent on forest than the other African pigs. Forest Hogs inhabit a variety offorest types: subalpine areas and bamboo groves, forest—grassland mosaics, montane, lowland, and swamp forests, river galleries, wooded savannas, and thickets. It is an ecotonic species, preferring intermediate habitat zones where the edge effect is maximized and where resources from different vegetation types can be exploited within a limited area. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understory cover in some parts of its home range, and a diversity of vegetation types. In dense forest areas, Forest Hogs tend to concentrate in isolated hilly, rocky habitats of savanna and forest, around clearings, or in mixed forest patches rather than in monodominant forest. The variety of forest habitats occupied implies a high degree of adaptability to local climatic conditions. Forest Hogslive in cold uplands (where night temperatures may fall to 0°C) as well as hot lowlands, but do not tolerate low humidity or prolonged solar radiation.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Forest Hogs are mainly grass-eaters and folivorous. Feeding habits show that they are neither exclusively forest animals nor pure grazers. They display great versatility in food selection, depending on the seasonal content, stage of growth, and quantity of plant resources available. Many species of grasses, sedges, and herbs are cropped. They root much less than other wild pigs and dig only in soft or muddy soils. In a savanna area of the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, they select more than 100 food plants. In Virunga National Park, however, five major savanna species were selected, on average, over the course of a year; the hogs preferred some grasses during dry seasons and others during rainy seasons, selecting grasses when their nutrient and energetic content is highest. Young piglets are known to feed on grasses well before weaning. In dense forest, both Forest Hogs and Bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus) use mast seed areas in monodominant stands. Examination of adult hog dung reveals different types of material, including poorly masticated grass seeds, stems, and leaves, fragments of millipedes and shields of ticks, earth nodules, and bristles. They also excavate salty earth with their tusks and lower incisors. These salt licks may be termite mounds, shallow caves, dry river banks, or even the embankment of a deserted road. Occasionally Forest Hogs eat meat and bones ofcarrion, eggs, and larvae. Coprophagy is not common, but piglets are fond of fresh elephant dung.</p> <p>Breeding. Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months. There are two mating seasons in Virunga National Park, with births occuring at the beginning of the rainy season. Gestation period averages 151 days. Before parturition, the expectant sow leaves the group and retreats under dense thickets in a nest made of grasses and branches where young are born. Litter size is 2-6 (average 2-4) piglets. The mother rejoins her group with her offspring only one week after parturition. Piglets may nurse from any female in the group, and are protected by all. Weaning occurs at 8-10 weeks. The averagelife expectancy is 3-5 years and average life span is five years, with a maximum of 18 years.</p> <p>Activity patterns. In the grassland-bushland—dry forest mosaic ofVirunga National Park, DR Congo, Forest Hogs spend on average 25% oftheir daily time moving and foraging in savanna, 21% moving, foraging, and wallowing in thickets or forested areas, and 54% resting in a sheltered sleeping site. Activity is most intense in the early morning and late afternoon, with a rest during hottest hours. There is no evidence of true nocturnal activity. Wallowing is a favorite activity, taking up about one hour each day in certain areas. Before sundown, family groupsretire to their sleeping place under dense thickets. Along the trails, the same dung heaps are always used as communal latrines. Males are fierce defenders of their group and sometimes lead the sounders in driving off predators and competitors. When shot at, they will attack humans. Competition between males is violent and may last for half an hour. Males rush at each other from a distance, crashing their foreheads together like rams. Despite their reinforced skulls, deaths among males due to fractures are not uncommon, but most wounds heal. This species is quite vocal, producing a minimum of ten recognizable categories of sounds. The main predators on adults are Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Lions (P. leo). Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta),, pythons, and eagles prey on young hogs and their mortality rate is about 50%.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Forest Hogs maintain unmarked and undefended home ranges of 3-10 km? laced with a network of well-worn trails connecting resting sites, latrines, wallows, waterholes, salt licks, and grazing meadows. Daily movements average 8-12 km, most of which takes place on an individual’s own or another animal’s trails. Home ranges may overlap extensively with ranges of other groups. Routine activities in confined territories make Forest Hogs easy targets for poachers. In Virunga National Park, the basic social group is a sounder of 4-20 animals consisting of 1-4 males, 1-9 females, and the offspring of up to three generations. Males can be monogamous or polygamous. Average group size is 10-14 in Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Parks. Larger groupings of several sounders have been recorded. Groups of bachelor subadults and solitary males are common. In good habitat, population densities are 7-30 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread, sometimes locally abundant, has a high reproductive potential, and although itis subject to hunting in many parts ofits range,it is not believed to be declining at a rate that would merit its being listed as Near Threatened or in a threatened category. The speciesis very vulnerable to deforestation and hunting for subsistence and the bushmeat trade. The western race zvoriensis is highly vulnerable to fragmentation of its habitat.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cerling &amp; Viehl (2004), Estes (1991), Ewer (1970), Fimpel (2002), Grimshaw (1998), d'Huart (1978, 1993), d'Huart &amp; Kingdon (In Press), d'Huart &amp; Klingel (2008), d'Huart &amp; Yohannes (1995), Kingdon (1979), Klingel &amp; Klingel (2004), Kock &amp; Howell (1999), Rahm &amp; Christiaensen (1963), Viehl (2003).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553E56338EBB066015EDFE56	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.text	038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Potamochoerus larvatus (F.Cuvier 1822)	<div><p>7.</p> <p>Bushpig</p> <p>Potamochoerus larvatus</p> <p>French: Potamochere du Cap / German: Buschschwein / Spanish: Potamocero de rio</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus larvatus F. Cuvier, 1822,</p> <p>“ Madagascar ” (no exact type locality known).</p> <p>The species is also present in Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, but the taxonomic situation of these populations is still unresolved as this species is thought to have been introduced there. Two subspecies are sometimes recognized on Madagascar: the nominate form larvatus, described by F. Cuvier in 1822, which lives in Mayotte and the north-west of Madagascar, and the race hova from the east of Madagascar. This may suggest that the species was not introduced by people, or was introduced at different times from different source populations. Until this issue is clarified, we do not here recognize the Madagascar races as subspecies, and thus exclude these populations from the species’ distribution. Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.l.hassamaHeuglin,1863—EAfrica,withspecimensknownfromEthiopia,SSudan,EDRCongo,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi,Kenya,andTanzania.</p> <p>P.l.koiropotamusDesmoulins,1831—lowerCongoRiver(leftbank),Angola,SDRCongo,Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique,Zimbabwe,Botswana,Swaziland,andSouthAfrica.</p> <p>P. l. somaliensis de Beaux, 1924 — Tana, Juba, and Shebelle rivers in NE Kenya and Somalia.</p> <p>The species is also present in Madagascar and the Comoro Is, but their taxonomic situation thereis still unresolved.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 100-150 cm, tail 30-40 cm, shoulder height 55-88 cm; weight 50-115 kg. Bushpigs have a compact body with short legs, rounded back, and elongated snout. The coatis extremely variable in color, from blond, pale red, or russet up to a dark brown or near-black shade. The color may vary with sex, age, region, or individual, and this significant variation in body color has led to the description of many variant races. It generally has a paler head with white face markings. Body hairs are long and sparse but elongated from the forehead to the tail, forming a white or grayish dorsal crest. It has a long tufted tail. Newborns are dark brown in color with longitudinal stripes or rows of paler spots. Adult males display bony ridges and calluses on the muzzle. Females have six pairs of mammae. There are clear distinctions between subspecies based, for example, on color and average male skull length, but there are also indications that intergradation may occur locally between subspecies. Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. The upper tusks are very small (average 7-6 cm), but the lower tusks are sizeable (9-16. 5 cm) and razor sharp. Chromosome numberis 34. The life span is 20 years.</p> <p>Habitat. The Bushpig is ecologically separated from the Red River Hog (FP. porcus). Within areas of co-occurrence (like the Albertine Rift), the Bushpig lives at higher elevations and the Red River Hog in lowland forests. Elsewhere, the two species are separated by ecological barriers such as the Congo River. Bushpigs occur in a wide range of forested and woodland habitats, from sea level to montane forest (up to 4000 m on Mount Kilimanjaro), with a marked preference for valley bottoms with soft soils and dense vegetation. There are striking differences in habitat among subspecies, with, for example, the hassama race primarily occurring in upland forest areas and the somaliensis race favoring riverine forests.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. This species is omnivorous and highly adaptable. It is probably a major seed disperser. Bushpigs consume roots, tubers, bulbs, corn, fungi,fruit, eggs, invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and carrion. In Uganda, Bushpigs were seen following groups of monkeys as they forage and feeding on discarded fruits. They make extensive use of their snouts to root for larvae, worms, and underground plant parts. Locally, Bushpig rooting can leave large areas plowed up and cleared of standing vegetation. In cultivated areas, sounders can do serious damage to crops in a short time.</p> <p>Breeding. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-21 months. Breeding may take place yearround, but most young are recorded at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. The gestation period is 120-127 days. Just before giving birth, females retire to a sheltered nest or hollow. Most common litter size is 3—4, with a maximum of ten. Newborns weigh 700-800 g. They are weaned at 2—4 months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Bushpigs are predominantly nocturnal, resting under heavy thickets of vegetation during the day. Nests for raising young or during rainy seasons are built in the cooler parts of their range. In the southern Cape, South Africa, they tend to be more diurnal during the colder months, suggesting that temperature regulation is a significant factor influencing the rhythm of activity. Mud wallowing and rubbing against trees are also regular activities. Population density is regulated by a wide range of predators including humans, Lions (Panthera leo), Leopards (P. pardus), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), pythons, and eagles. Courageous and dangerous when cornered, both boars and sows defend piglets cooperatively and aggressively. Fighting behavior includes frontal and lateral postures with dorsal crest erected, snout-boxing, and forehead shoving. Bushpigs run fast and swim easily. Their senses of smell and hearing are very good, but eyesight only fair.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. In South Africa, groups occupy spatially exclusive home ranges of 3-10 km? with daily movements of 0-5-6 km. Population densities are 0-3-10-1 ind/km?. They live in family sounders of 6-12 individuals, led by a dominant male, with one or more females and their young. Unlike other wild pigs, adult males play an active role in rearing and defending the young. Other males are aggressively chased off and territorial encounters are characterized by ritualized displays and scent marking. Males disperse from the natal group and old males may be solitary, whereas females remain on their natal home range.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the species is relatively widespread and common and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. Though the Bushpig is still relatively widespread, its distribution is patchy in certain regions. It is reported to be increasingly rare outside of protected areas, and widely hunted either for subsistence or for commercial bushmeat trade at local, mostly urban markets. It is also hunted as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases like African swine fever, nagana (a form of trypanosomiasis), and sleeping sickness. Clearing of forested areas and conversion to cropland have benefited this species in some areas.</p> <p>Bibliography. de Beaux (1924), Cooper &amp; Melton (1988), Duckworth (1992), Estes (1991), Ghiglieri et al. (1982), Grubb (1993), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Melton et al. (1989), Nielsen (2006), Nummelin (1990), Seydack (1991, 2008), Skinner et al. (1976), Sowls &amp; Phelps (1968), Stuart (1985), Vercammen et al. (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553D56338E1C0C491892FAF7	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.text	038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Potamochoerus porcus (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>8.</p> <p>Red River Hog</p> <p>Potamochoerus porcus</p> <p>French: Potamocheére roux / German: Pinselohrschwein / Spanish: Potamocero rojo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus porcus Linnaeus, 1766,</p> <p>“Habitat in Africa” (= West Africa).</p> <p>No subspecies have been designated, because no discernable geographically consistent morphological variation has been identified. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Main tropical rainforest belt from Senegal and Guinea Bissau to NW Uganda and E DR Congo, reaching as S boundary N Angola (Cabinda); no recent records from Gambia or Chad and its presence is uncertain in S Sudan and SW Ethiopia. As a species that may range widely through gallery forests, it may also occur in adjacent countries.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 100-145 cm,tail 30-45 cm, shoulder height 55-80 cm; weight 45-115 kg. Red River Hogs are the smallest and most colorful of all African pigs. They have short, laterally flattened bodies that are predominantly bright russet orange. There is a narrow white dorsal crest from the head to the tail, which is erected when the animal is excited. The pelage is short except for longer bristles on jaws and flanks. The head is strongly contrasted, with bold markings like a facial mask: grayish muzzle, white “brows” around the eyes, white cheeks and whiskers, and black marks on the snout, jaws, ears, and forehead. The ear pinnae have a prominent terminal tuft of white hair. Young Red River Hogs are dark brown with a facial mask and rows of pale yellow spots on body. Males have two humps on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The tusks are small and sharp. Skull length is 32-:7-40. 5 cm (adult males) and 26.9-37. 8 cm (adult females). Dental formulais13/3,C1/1,P 4/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 42. Chromosome numberis 34. Life span is 10-15 years.</p> <p>Habitat. Red River Hogs mainly occur in gallery forests and swamp margins of primary rainforest where there is significant vegetative cover. In transition zones, they frequently visit dry forests, savanna woodlands, and cultivated areas. The speciesis highly adaptable and locally benefits from regeneration of logged-over forested areas, where they find more varied food sources and a reduction of their natural predators. Population densities are 1-6 ind/km?, but wide variations are recorded. Up to 18-4 ind/km?* have been recorded in the forest-savanna ecotone of Lopé National Park, Gabon. The species is widespread in its habitat except where the Forest Hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhagent) is common.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Red River Hogs have an omnivorous diet, with a marked preference for roots and tubers. They also feed on grasses, aquatic plants, bulbs,fruit, carrion, and various small animals. They use their snouts to root in the ground and can do serious damage to crops. The species uses the noises and calls of monkeys and frugivorous birds to detect potential food supplies. Seasonal aggregations of Red River Hogs at masting fruit trees account for observations of temporary groups of up to 60 individuals. In Makokou (Gabon), these groups are very noisy when breaking hard nutshells of Caula edulis and Irvingia gabonensis, which attracts the attention of predators and secondary feeders. The hogs are sometimes followed by guinea fowl, who peck about the turned over ground for food. Seasonal massive availability of preferred foods and the hogs’ high level of opportunism explain semi-nomadic circuits of movements.</p> <p>Breeding. This species uses a wide range ofritualized postures with release of glandular secretions during male fights and rut. Sexual maturity is reached at 18-24 months. Gestation is 120-127 days. Farrowing occurs in February-March in Nigeria and in December—]January in Gabon, but females can give birth twice yearly in captive conditions.Litters of 1-4 piglets (rarely up to 6) are born in a sheltered hollow covered with a thick mattress of grasses and leaves, where they stay 10-15 days with their mother before joining the rest of the sounder. Weaning occurs at 2—4 months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. These animals are most active in the evening and during the night, and rest in burrows deep within dense thickets during the day. They are capable of covering long distances in search of food, and like to rest in wallows in shallow swamps. The whole sounder runs away when alarmed or frightened. If striped piglets are present, they crouch and freeze while adults face the danger. When cornered or wounded, the adult hogs can display considerable courage and vigorously attack predators, including humans. They are very good swimmers and are frequently seen crossing large rivers. Their main predators are humans and Leopards (Panthera pardus), but locally also Lions (P. leo), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and pythons. Red River Hogs make up 20% of the biomass consumed by Leopards in Lopé National Park.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. In some areas, the narrow extent and linearity of the species’ home ranges (gallery forests in savanna habitats) may force frequent and extensive movements. Sounders roam a comparatively large home range, sometimes with over 4 km between resting and feeding areas. Distance covered daily is 3-6 km, depending on food availability and the presence of young. Red River Hogs are gregarious, with sounders of 6-20 females, subadults, and young attended by a large master boar. As with other suids, older juvenile males are bullied by their father if they approach his feeding or wallowing place too closely. On the move, hogs communicate by soft grunts in order to maintain the cohesion of the sounder, and they use a wide range of vocalizations adapted to various circumstances. In shared home ranges, boars communicate their presence and status by frequent rubbing and tusking oftrees.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List as the speciesis relatively widespread and common, and there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline.The main threat to this species is the growing pressure from hunting for commercial bushmeat trade and for subsistence. Together with the duikers,it is one of the most sought after and hunted species in the Congo Basin and it makes up 40% of the bushmeat sold in markets in Gabon. In the Congo Basin, the high demand for bushmeat and the spread of gun hunting are factors that can easily threaten the survival of this species. Experiments with raising in captivity have shown its susceptibility to stress during capture, low rate of survival of young (11-57%), but rapid adaptation to confined environment and human company.</p> <p>Bibliography. Dosimont (2004), Grubb (1993), Henschel et al. (2005), Kingdon (1997), Laurance et al. (2006), Okouyi (2002, 2006), Payne (2002), Querouil &amp; Leus (2008), Tutin et al. (1997), Vercammen et al. (1993), van Vliet &amp; Nasi (2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553D56328B240AEB17F4FB8B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.text	038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus cebifrons Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>9.</p> <p>Visayan Warty Pig</p> <p>Sus cebifrons</p> <p>French: Sanglier des Visayas / German: \isayas-Pustelschwein / Spanish: Jabali de Bisayas</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus cebifrons Heude, 1888,</p> <p>Cebu Island, Philippines.</p> <p>This species was only upgraded to full species level in 1993. Before that it was variously classified as a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis), the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). However, two recent independent phylogenetic studies suggest that S. cebifrons is a sister species to all other members of the genus Sus and may be the most primitive member of the genus. Indications are that a split separating the Philippine species occurred very early in the evolution of the genus. Recent divergence estimates suggest that this happened sometime during the very late Pliocene or early to middle Pleistocene. This was a time of frequently alternating glacial cycles, and possibly pigs made it to what are now the Philippine Islands when sea levels were low enough to make dispersal by swimming or rafting possible. Two subspecies are recognized historically, but the nominate form cebifrons (Heude, 1888) from Cebu Island is extinct. Recent mtDNA studies have indicated the likely addition of a third subspecies from Panay; a fourth population from the remote island of Masbate is known only from a single specimen, which has yet to be formally described or compared to other populations. One extant subspecies is recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>S. c. megrinus Sanborn, 1952 — W Visayas (Negros, Panay, and possibly Masbate Is), Philippines.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body ¢. 100 cm, tail 23 cm, shoulder height up to 63 cm (males) and 30-45 cm (females); weight 35-40 kg (males) and 20-35 kg (females), although weights of up to 80 kg have been reported from Negros. S. cebifronsis relatively small in size compared to other pig species. Males are much larger than females, with up to a fourfold difference in body weights between the sexes. The coat is generally gray-black in females and subadult males, but more fawn mixed with black in adult males. Both sexes have distinct manes extending from crest to hindquarters. Males in breeding condition develop even longer manes, which are grown and shed at the beginning and end of each breeding season (usually November to late March or early April). The mane is a very distinctive character of this species, often flopping over the face of the boar and obscuring the eyes, and extending back to the loins. Females have a weakly marked snout band; the band is very broad and well-marked white or whitish yellow in males. The generally distinct white snout band is a useful characteristic for distinguishing S. cebifrons from S. philippensis and Mindori Warty Pig (S. oliveri). The external appearance of S. oliveri is still poorly known, though S. cebifrons and S. philippensis may also be distinguished by the latter having more prominent white jowl tufts. The Palawan Bearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus) also has a distinct white snout band, though this differs from S. cebifrons by typically extending downwards and backwards as a characteristic “white beard,” distinguishing this species from other Philippine wild pigs. S. cebifrons has a high-crowned, relatively small skull with obvious sexual dimorphism. Despite its common name Visayan Warty Pig, the facial warts of S. cebifrons are typically small, and these pigs completely lack gonial warts (warts on the angle of the jaw). The young of S. cebifrons are marked with wide, alternating orange-brown and black stripes that run from the shoulders to the rump. There are typically four black stripes. One pair runs down the back on either side of a paler dorsal stripe and another pair runs along the flanks and haunches. The juvenile striping loses definition at 7-9 months of age and adult coloration is fully achieved after one year. Animals from Panay seem to differ somewhat from those from Negros and Masbate. The Panay animals have grayer rather than predominantly black flank hair, a better developed mane that extends from the forehead down the back to the rump, and males have a more pronounced but narrower snout band. Females from Panay may have a mane, but it is less developed than in males. In animals from Negros, there is usually a dark reddish-brown or black tuft, with scattered red or straw-colored hairs, on the crown of the head. Other dental and cranial details also differentiate populations from Panay and Negros. The Negros animals appear to have a straighter skull profile with a more rounded crown, and the Cebu animals a more concave shape, although this observation was based on a very small sample.</p> <p>Habitat. Originally this species occurred from primary and secondary forests at sea level to mossy forests at 1600 m of elevation, but with the loss of lower elevation forests, the warty pigs are now mostly confined to and isolated in the few remaining forested habitats at 800 m or above. Small numbers of these animals are also known to persist in some degraded habitats, such as Imperata cylindrica grasslands, as long as there are areas of dense cover, but there is evidence that some and perhaps most of these individuals are either feral domestic pigs or hybrids between S. cebifrons and free-ranging domestic pigs introduced by farmers in hinterland communities. In captivity, Visayan Warty Pigs readily bathe in open pools and use mud wallows, and it is assumed that the animals also do this in the wild state.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Visayan Warty Pig is omnivorous, feeding on a range of plant and animal species. Because of the species’ scarcity in the wild there are no direct reports of feeding behavior, but some information has been obtained from scats and feeding signs. The species appears to feed on plant species such as Lithocarpus (Fagaceae), Platea excelsa (Icainaceae), and Dillenia reifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), with the former two species possibly being completely dependent on S. cebifrons for the dispersal of their seeds. The species also appears to feed on a range of vines, palms, wild bananas, and agricultural crops such as taro and avocados, as well as earthworms. Captive animals will readily consume a wide variety of cereals, fruits, vegetables, leafy branches, and grass, and most individuals will avidly consume rodents (rats and mice) and other prey items.</p> <p>Breeding. The breeding behavior of S. cebifrons is primarily known from captive populations. The gestation period is about 118 days. One or two weeks prior to giving birth, females begin showing nesting behavior and may become aggressive to conspecifics. Females usually give birth overnight, and are very protective of their offspring. Litter size in the wild is between two and four, which is similar to those in captivity. A record number of five offspring in a litter was observed in two Philippine breeding centers in 2005; the piglets had to be weaned earlier than usual to help the female regain condition. Juvenile animals begin tasting solid food at one week of age and may be weaned by six months. Females are capable of producing a litter every 8-12 months. Females reach sexual maturity at an age of 2-3 years. Males may be sexually mature at two years, but do not possess the fully developed characteristics of adult males. Captive Visayan Warty Pigs can live up to 18 years.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Little has been reported about the activity patterns of S. cebifrons in undisturbed areas, because these areas are so remote and the terrain so rugged as to make even chance observations unlikely. In more accessible areas, where the species is heavily hunted, the animals avoid human activity (but may raid agricultural crops planted within or close to forest edges) and are mainly active at night.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. This species is sociable, mostly living in small groups (though up to a dozen individuals have been reported). Considering its much reduced densities, larger groupings would likely form under more natural conditions. Animals in zoos are described as “playful and friendly,” which may be further reference to their social nature. The composition of S. cebifrons groups is typically a single adult male with several females (usually three or four, according to local hunters), plus young of both sexes. Solitary males have also been reported, but are encountered only rarely. Captive boars are routinely left with peri-natal sows. The sows vigorously defend their farrowing nests from intruding boars (and caretakers), but generally allow boars full access to infants within a few days of their first emergence from the nest.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. S. cebifrons is endemic to the West Visayas Islands of the central Philippines, where it is known or presumed to have occurred on all six main islands: Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, and Ticao. Fragmented populations survive today on the islands of Negros and Panay. The species maystill occur on Masbate Island, although no confirmed sightings have been made since 1993; it was last reported on Cebu in the 1960s. It is extinct on Guimaras and Ticao. It is not known whether it or S. philippensis formerly occurred on the neighboring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have been extirpated. S. cebifrons has been replaced by S. philippensis on Bohol and all other larger Philippine Islands east of Huxley’s Line except Mindoro, where it has been replaced by S. oliveri. It is thought to be extinct in over 98% of its former range and is now found only in small, fragmented populations. Besides the loss of suitable forest habitat, the species is highly threatened by hunting for food and to reduce crop raiding. Hybridization is another threat, there being recent evidence that warty pigs have bred with domestic pigs. This is obvious in animals killed by poachers, which with increasing frequency show evidence of hybridization, including shortened snouts, large ears, reduced manes, stockier bodies, and even piebald markings. In response to increasing evidence ofits critically threatened conservation status, in 1993 the IUCN/SSC Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group and other supporting partner agencies, including the Zoological Society of San Diego and the Rotterdam Zoo, devised and initiated a Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme under the auspices of a Memorandum of Agreement with the Philippine Government's Department of Environment &amp; Natural Resources (DENR). Priority activities identified and implemented under the auspices of this agreement included various follow-up field status and ethnobiological surveys, education and awareness campaigns, development of new protected areas, and the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programs. These include the development of scientifically managed wildlife rescue and breeding centers on Negros and Panay Islands and similar species recovery programs for a variety of other threatened taxa endemic to the West Visayas (e.g. the Visayan Spotted Deer, Rusa alfredi, and rufous-headed hornbill, Aceros waldeni). This was done partly with a view to reintroductions of these species, but also as a means of opportunistically acquiring sufficient numbers of founder individuals, by rescuing animals illegally caught in snares, confiscating live individuals offered for sale in local meat markets, and prevailing upon local owners to donate individuals they had acquired as pets from similar sources. In the case of the Visayan Warty Pig, there was also an urgent need to ensure the survival of pure-bred animals while the opportunity still existed to do so. Every attempt has been made to determine the precise origin and likely genetic purity of any such founder individuals, to ensure the likely purity of the separate stocks of these animals from Negros and Panay. This action was since vindicated by new evidence of important genetic differences between the Negros and Panay populations. First and second generation captive-bred animals from both islands have also been exported on breeding loans from the Philippine Government to the San Diego and Rotterdam Z00s, and are now being cooperatively managed in a number of approved breeding centers in the USA and Europe.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cummings (2003), De Leon et al. (2008), Groves (1997), Groves &amp; Grubb (1993), Hamann &amp; Curio (1999), Huffman (2010), Kubbinga (2005), Lastimoza (2006), Oliver (1995, 2004, 2008, 2009), Oliver, Cox &amp; Groves (1993), Pedregosa (2005), Rabor (1977).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E85531563E8E1C0EED1390FD14	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.text	038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus philippensis Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>10.</p> <p>Philippine Warty Pig</p> <p>Sus philippensis</p> <p>French: Sanglier des Philippines / German: Philippinen-Pustelschwein / Spanish: Jabali de Filipinas</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus celebensis var. philippensis Nehring, 1886,</p> <p>Luzon, Philippines.</p> <p>Sus philippensis was recognized formally as a distinct species in 1991, originally having been considered a subspecies of the Sulawesi Warty Pig (S. celebensis) or the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus). Initially, three subspecies were proposed: philippensis from Luzon and associated islands; mindanensis from Mindanao and associated islands; and oliveri from Mindoro. The latter subspecies was assigned later to full species level. Recent mtDNA studies have suggested that philippensis and mindanensis are distinct enough to be considered full species, but this has not yet been formally proposed. Two subspecies are actually recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>S.p.philippensisNehring,1886—LuzonandassociatedIs(Polillo,Catanduanes,and,formerly,Marinduque).</p> <p>S. p. mindanensis Forsyth Major, 1897 — Mindanao and surrounding Is (Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Camiguin, Basilan, and associated smallerIs).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. No body measurements are available for this species. This is a species of Sus with karyotype 2n = 36, unlike other wild species, as well as domestic pigs, in which 37 or 38 chromosomes are more common. S. philippensis is generally blackhaired, with a prominent black mane (sometimes interlaced with white higher streaks in subspecies mindanensis) and gray skin, which sometimes appears whitish in color when extending over the well-developed preorbital warts. The latter characteristic and this species’ more prominent white jowl tufts readily distinguish it from other Philippine wild pigs. Philippine Warty Pigs have a long, full crown tuft and a nuchal mane that extends along the back in most individuals, especially adult males. Males have two pairs of warts; their gonial (lower jaw) hair tufts are very long and thick, and largely white or yellow. Adult sows also have distinctive white, but much thinner, gonial tufts. The skull has a deep, sharply bordered preorbital fossa. Compared to S. celebensis and the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), the facial skeleton is somewhat elongated but not as much as in S. barbatus or the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus). The face is somewhat concave at the nasal root, with nasals slightly convex and the malar tuberosity greatly swollen. The braincase is high crowned, sloping downward to facial skeleton, and with the occipital crest extending backward. The anterior margin of the temporal fossa is perpendicularly above M? or just behind it. The foramen magnum is described as “teardrop-shaped.” The maxillary premolar rows curve outward anteriorly. M* is very short, with four major cusps and a small 5" cusp. The two subspecies are morphologically distinct. Subspecies philippensis has a grayish crown tuft with an anterior fringe that is directed forward. The facial warts are relatively large, and the whorls on the lower jaw are white. The skull size in males is relatively small, and the braincase is shortened and relatively flat-topped. Subspecies mindanensis closely resembles philippensis, but differs in the following features: the crest and mane are mostly black, but often distinctly intermixed with white or reddish-brown hairs, though the crown tuft may be white anteriorly; the forward-directed fringe is absent or less apparent in most individuals. The facial warts are small, though the lowerjaw tufts, usually yellow or yellow mixed with black, are prominent; they are much more developed in adult males than females. The skull size of mindanensis is also much larger in males than females, and the braincase more rounded in comparison to philippensis.</p> <p>Habitat. The Philippine Warty Pig was formerly abundant from sea level up to at least 2800 m, in virtually all habitats, but now it is common only in remote forests. It was recently reported to be common in montane and mossy forest 925-2150 m elevation in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Luzon, and a recent birding trip report found many pig wallows in the park. In the Kitanglad Mountain Range on Mindanao, signs of pigs were also seen in montane, mossy forest between 1800 m and 2000 m. A specimen taken in 1996 was found at 1100 m, and in another in 1960 at c. 1300 m, but it is unclear whether the species still survives at these elevations today in Kitanglad. Habitat information from other areas is scarce, butit is assumed that the species is now largely restricted to higher forests in remoter areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known specifically about what the species feeds on in high elevation forests, but presumably it survives on a diet of tubers, fallen fruit, and invertebrates.</p> <p>Breeding. Little is known. The species has seldom been bred in captivity, though a litter of five piglets was reported on one occasion.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Little is known of the species’ circadian activity in remoter areas, but it is reported to be essentially nocturnal in areas subject to human disturbance.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List because it is currently undergoing a drastic population decline, estimated to be more than 30% over a period of three generations, or about 21 years. This decline is inferred from the apparent disappearance of several populations and the effects of overhunting, habitat loss, and hybridization. S. philippensis is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the Palawan Faunal Region (whereitis replaced by the Palawan Bearded Pig, S. ahoenobarbus), Mindoro (replaced by the Mindoro Warty Pig, S. oliveri), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (replaced by the Visayan Warty Pig, S. cebifrons), and the Sulu Faunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related but as yet undescribed species of pig). Subspecies philippensis is confined to the “Greater Luzon Faunal Region.” Subspecies mindanensis is confined to the “Greater Mindanao Faunal Region.” Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for most of these islands, particularly the smaller ones. The present status of S. philippensis may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest overits known ranges, the likely extent of hunting pressure, and other factors. The species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the largerislands, are badly fragmented and declining. The species’ habitat is threatened by continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Pig hunting continues throughout the remaining range of the species, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and by recreational hunters from cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat, which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals. Incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilan and other islands.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cruzana et al. (2005), Griffin &amp; Griffin (2000), Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Heaney, Balete, Dolar et al. (1998), Heaney, Balete, Gee et al. (2005), Heaney, Tabaranza et al. (2006), Oliver (1992, 1995), Oliver, Cox &amp; Groves (1993), Rabor (1977), Wu Guisheng et al. (2006).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E85530563E8EB00C4919C4F9C3	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.text	038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus oliveri Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>11.</p> <p>Mindoro Warty Pig</p> <p>Sus oliveri</p> <p>French: Sanglier de Mindoro / German: Mindoro-Pustelschwein / Spanish: Jabali de Mindoro</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus philippensis oliveri Groves, 1997,</p> <p>Mayapang, Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines.</p> <p>This species was recognized as a distinct subspecies of the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis) in 1997, and four years later designated as a full species, owing to various distinct characteristics setting it aside from S. philippensis. Mindoro island is surrounded by deepwater channels, indicating that it has had no recent landbridge connection with any adjacent island in the Philippine Archipelago. It has thus been isolated and remained isolated during repeated Pleistocene sea-level changes for tens of thousands of years. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Mindoro I in the C Philippines.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. No body measurements are available for this species. Based on skull length measurements in three males specimens, S. oliveri appears to be similar in size to the Philippine Warty Pig, but readily distinguished from that species byits very elongated facial skeleton, which points more downward, especially anterior to the canines. The braincase is more elongated behind the zygomatic roots. The palate is also more elongated, but not to the extent seen in the Palawan Bearded Pig (S. ahoenobarbus). The only currently available skin of S. oliveri suggests that males have a black crown tuft mixed with straw-colored hairs. The preocular warts are well developed, and they have a straw-colored tuft on the lower jaw. A photo of an adult female recently taken by trophy hunters on Mindoro shows a well-developed, blackish-gray bristly mane that runs across the head and along the back. The coat is rather shaggy and blackish or blackish-gray all over. Unfortunately, the large ears, short snout, and absence of warts suggest that this might have been a feral or hybrid animal, which means that there is still no clear understanding of what a true Mindoro Warty Pig lookslike.</p> <p>Habitat. Very few direct observations of the species in the wild have been recorded, mostly during annual Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) census exercises in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park. The species’ habitat preference therefore remains mostly unclear. It presumably favors remaining stands of forests and thickets where it can find shelter and food.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because its extent of occurrenceis less than 5000 km? and its area of occupancyis less than 500 km?. Even though accurate records are lacking, the distribution range of S. oliveri is likely to be severely fragmented. Surveys conducted in the late 1990s indicated that Mindoro Warty Pigs are now mostly confined to higher elevations in the central and northwestern mountain ranges. There is also a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals because of overhunting. Hybridization with free-ranging domestic pigs introduced and maintained by hinterland communities is an additional and likely serious threat.</p> <p>Bibliography. Groves (1997, 2001a, 2001b), Oliver (1995, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553056398BB909FE1251FD8A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.text	038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus ahoenobarbus Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>12.</p> <p>Palawan Bearded Pig</p> <p>Sus ahoenobarbus</p> <p>French: Sanglier de Palawan / German: Palawan-Bartschwein / Spanish: Jabali barbudo de Palawan</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus barbatus ahoenobarbus Huet, 1888,</p> <p>“Palauan” (= Palawan).</p> <p>Sus ahoenobarbus was originally described as a subspecies of the Bearded Pig (S. barbatus), but was upgraded to full species because ofits distinct characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis based on two mt DNA cytochrome b fragments (mtDNA cyt b) pacha that S. ahoenobarbus was more closely related to the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) than to S. barbatus, of which it was originally thought to be a subspecies. Morphologically it is, however, more similar to S. barbatus, as evidenced by their conspicuous beards and absence of the prominent manes and mandibular facial warts characteristic of Philippine Warty Pigs (S. philippensis). Also, the chromosome number, which is 38 in S. ahoenobarbus, S. barbatus, and almost all other Sus species, but is 36 in S. cebifrons and S. philippinensis, suggests a closer affinity to S. barbatus. As was stated in the taxonomic review of the species by C. P. Groves, “there is absolutely no doubt that this form is a dwarf barbatus.” In view of more recent evidence, it is unclear whether there are issues of data interpretation underlying this apparent contradiction in phylogenetic affinity, or whether there is another explanation. For example, hybridization may have occurred between barbatus and cebifrons, so that ahoenobarbus maintains characteristics of both species. Until further research is conducted, the phylogenetic affinities of S. ahoenobarbus remain unclear. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Palawan and associated Is (Calauit, Busuanga, Bacbac, Coron, Marily, Culion &amp; Dumaran, Linapacan in the N, and Bugsuk, Balabac &amp; Ramos in the S). Probably now extinct in Bulalacao.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 100-160 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 100 cm; weight up to 150 kg. This species is smaller than S. barbatus, and has a shorter facial skeleton. The hair is thin, bristly, and blackish-brown over most of the animal, but adults have a distinct mane of longer whitish hairs extending from crown to rump and a characteristic beard of long white hairs on the cheeks and jowls that extends in a band across the snout. This band with black hairs around the eyes, forehead, and more anterior parts of the snout, provides a mask-like appearance. Infants lack manes and beards and are generally far less distinctly marked, except for three horizontal bands of orange-colored hair extending from their necks to their hindquarters; the lower band is much broader and extends over most of the lowersides of their bodies.</p> <p>Habitat. It occurs in a variety of primary and secondary habitats, ranging from lowland and mid-montane rainforests (0—c. 1500 m above sea level) to drier open woodland and grasslands. It also frequents drier limestone and mangrove forests in coastal areas and occurs in cultivated and managed areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Although this has not been studied,it is thought that ecologically S. ahoenobarbus is similar to the Bearded Pig from Borneo, which consumes roots, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and a great range of plants, especially favoring lipidrich fruit of the Fagaceae and Dipterocarpaceae families.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing is known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Little is known, except that the species is most often seen or reported to be active in the early mornings and late afternoons in relatively undisturbed areas, but tends to be almost exclusively nocturnal in areas where hunting and other anthropogenic disturbances are commonplace.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Almost nothing is known. Most local hunters and other informants report that they seldom see more than two or three individuals together, though it is likely that larger natal family units and other socioreproductive groups are maintained in less disturbed areas.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the “ Palawan Faunal Region,” which extends from Balabac and associated islands in the extreme south-west through all of Palawan Island and its associated offshore islets, as far as the Calamian Islands in the extreme north-east. However, this region also constitutes the easternmost extension of the Sunda Shelf and was intermittently connected by land bridges to Borneo by sea level changes during consecutive Pleistocene glaciations. The species remains relatively widely, if increasingly patchily, distributed. It is heavily hunted throughout most of its range, either for direct consumption or to be sold. One kilogram of pork fetches a price of about twice the price of domestic pork. Pigs are hunted throughout the year, but especially during forest tree-fruiting periods (no specifics are known) when pigs gather to forage on fallen fruits. They are also killed in reprisal for their occasional raids on neighboring forest gardens or other cultivated areas. Hunting methods include snares, low caliberrifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as “pig bombs,” which are made of ping-pong-ball-sized mixtures of gunpowder and shards of porcelain, coated with fish paste or other strong-smelling baits to entice the pigs. These are buried on pig trails or around cultivated plants close to forest edges. They explode when they are unearthed and bitten into by foraging pigs,killing the pigs or, more likely, causing horrendous wounds and producing trails that hunters with dogs can follow to collect the dead or dying animals the following day. S. ahoenobarbus is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas, because ofillegal “kaingin” (slashand-burn agriculture), mining, and other commercial developments. The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced and/or realistically unenforceable in most areas—including most designated protected areas. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation and the addition of new protected areas, which should be designed to enable greater management by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national system. Awareness campaigns are also important: few hinterland communities are aware of any prevailing wildlife protection legislation, or disregard the laws because of the chronic lack of enforcement by salient governmental authorities. This is especially the case where reprisals against the pigs follow their occasional raids on crops; the reprisals are likely to illicit sympathy and non-action from the responsible agencies. Farming in protected areas and reprisals against the pigs are justified by claims of poverty and loss of livelihood,in spite of the highly dubious nature of such claims. Many claimants are not economically dependent on hunting, but instead hunt for predominately traditional/cultural and recreational reasons.</p> <p>Bibliography. Boissiére &amp; Liswanti (2006), Caldecott et al. (1993), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Groves (2001a, 2001b), Heaney et al. (1998), Lucchini et al. (2005), Oliver (1995, 2008), Rabor (1977), Widmann et al. (2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553756398E1C0D271B7BFB10	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.text	038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus barbatus Muller 1838	<div><p>13.</p> <p>Bearded Pig</p> <p>Sus barbatus</p> <p>French: Sanglier barbu / German: Bartschwein / Spanish: Jabali barbudo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus barbatus Muller, 1838,</p> <p>Banjermasin, S. Kalimantan, Indonesia.</p> <p>The seemingly absurd subspecific name 0: has been commented on by several authors. Apparently the name was split from a Sumatran tribal name for pig “nangoi,” with only the last bit of the word used. Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>S.b.barbatusMuller,1838—BorneoandassociatedIs,possiblyextendingtoTawiTawi. S. b. oi Miller, 1902 — Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Bangka.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 137-152 cm (males, although some reports suggest that males can attain a total length of 208 cm) and 122-148 cm (females), tail 17-26 cm, shoulder height 90 cm, hindfoot 27-32 cm; weight usually ranges from 58 kg to 83 kg, with females somewhat lighter than males. When food is abundant, weights of up to 200 kg can be attained. Adult Bearded Pigs are characterized by their relatively large body size, reduced sexual dimorphism compared to other species of Sus, long legs, a bearded jaw tuft, and sparse body hair. The species has smaller warts and a more elongated skull than the other warty pigs, relatively small ears, and a long tail with a large terminal tuft divided into distinct anterior and posterior parts. The head is typically long, with a beard of bristles extending along the lower mandibles and a thick band of forward-pointing bristles across the snout above the mouth. The nominate subspecies barbatus has long, sweeping cheek whiskers and thicker and longer hairs on the snout band (especially in males); the whiskers of the subspecies oi are shorter on the cheeks, but long and wiry over the snout. It has been suggested that the body of oi is flatter bilaterally than that of barbatus, but this has not been confirmed. The overall body coloration of Bearded Pigs varies from blackish in young pigs to a paler reddish brown, yellow-gray, or almost buffy white in adults. The color of mud wallows affects the apparent color of pigs. Piglets of the Bearded Pig are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; these stripes are lost by six months of age. Females have six pairs of mammae.</p> <p>Habitat. Bearded Pigs are well adapted to the extensive dipterocarp forests of Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra. This tree family is often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting. Bearded Pigs also make extensive use of riverbanks, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms. Other habitats they use include estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of oldjungle, beaches, all kinds of plantations, clearings, and also the outskirts of towns. The species is well known forits migratory behavior. Bearded Pigs are scattered across large regions during non-mast fruiting times, but move from both mountain and swamp habitats to drier lowland forests when fruit becomes abundant.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Bearded Pigs are real omnivores and it has been said that “it is almost easier to state what they will not eat.” They feed on a long list of food plants, but also consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, and carrion. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition, and reproduction. The other foods that normally occur in the forest are assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceae and Dipterocarpaceae are thought to be especially important. During mast fruiting the majority of seeds in the diet are dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species. Oaks, especially Castinopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., and Quercus spp., are also favorites. During fruiting times, they are almost solely seed predators, and Bearded Pigs play an important role in the distribution of seeds. They also consume a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes, and other tiny, hard testas, which can pass through their guts and germinate.</p> <p>Breeding. Age at first pregnancy varies in the wild from about 10 to 20 months. The rut appears to coincide with synchronized flowering in the forest, occuring during the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer observers a potential visual cue. During the onset of droughts and related flowering of dipterocarps, male Bearded Pigs rut and females construct nests. In big fruiting years, Bearded Pigs can “double-clutch.” This suggests that a certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they are receptive to mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1-5, whereas rutting males scored zero on this measure (n = 19). Gestation length is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Births occur in a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female was seven (n = 53), which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Litter size is, however, very variable in part because of the influence of female size; small mothers typically have 3—4 piglets in a litter and large ones have 10-12.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Bearded Pigs are mostly diurnal. They are subject to irregular migrations, seeming to follow fruit when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for many years after. The ripening of illipe nuts (Shorea sp.) in Sarawak and East Kalimantan appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations. These mass migrations of Bearded Pigs are distinct from annual local movements damaging rice fields. The somewhat forced, lemminglike aspects of these large scale pig migrations are exemplified by the observation of a pig whose hindquarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward byits front legs to follow its conspecifics. The appearance of large numbers of pigs traveling together is especially obvious during river crossings, which they do in groups of over 100 animals. This provides local hunters with the opportunity to kill large numbers of pigs for meat and fat, from which they extract oils. Mass river crossings might have evolved at a time when crocodiles were still abundant in the region. Bearded Pigs appear to exist in different population states, which have been summarized as follows. 1) Dispersed,static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous “background” food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 2) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous “target” food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia-Burseraceae forest in Peninsular Malaysia. 3) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic mosaic of fruit production. Short to medium-range movements. Example: typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes. 4) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable, and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply. Examples: Dryobalanops aromatica association in Peninsular Malaysia; Dinochloa association in Sabah. 5) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for severallitters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawak in 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987. 6) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported from Malaya and Borneo. It remains largely unstudied how these different population states have been affected by the continuing loss, degradation, and fragmentation of forest habitats. Unconfirmed information from local people in Kalimantan and Sarawak suggests that mass migrations of pigs no longer occur to the same extent as reported formerly, even as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, which might indicate that with the removal of millions of hectares of high timber value dipterocarp forests food dynamics and related population states have been severely disrupted.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The basic social unit is that of a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. The pigs’ movements vary so much throughout the year and between years that no reliable home range estimates can be made unless animals are radio-tracked for several years. Such studies have recently been completed in Sabah, Malaysia, but the data are not yet available. Bearded Pigs are powerful swimmers and easily cross the many large rivers of Borneo and Sumatra. They have also been reported to cross seas, which might explain why they occur on so many small islands. A report from the 19" century mentions droves of pigs swimming across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo, a distance of about 8 km. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs crossing the sea channel between Sabah and Sibutu (a distance of some 45 km), and also the Kowie harbor near Tawau, which is at least 9 km. A Bearded Pig was found swimming in the middle of the Sandakan Bay in Sabah, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, 5 km away.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, mostly because of the rapid loss of its forest habitat and high hunting pressure throughoutits range. The Bearded Pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo. It is also reported from the island of Sibutu, west of the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines, and possibly on Tawi Tawi Island. In Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a relatively small part ofits presumed prehistoric range. In Borneo the species is still widespread but likely declining. There are additional records from a range of smaller islands, where the status of the speciesis unclear but populations have possibly been extirpated. This includes the islands of Balembangan, Banggi, Batam, Bauwal, Bintan, Bruit, Bunju, Burung, Durian Besar, Galang, Jambongan, Juanata, Karimata, Kundur, Lamukotan, Laut, Malawali, Mapor, Miang Besar, Molleangen, Panebangan, Pelapis, Ransang, Rempang, Rupat, Sauh, Sebuku, Sibutu, Tarakan, Tebing Tinggi, and Ungar. Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as Bearded Pigs for at least 35,000 years. Holocene and prehistoric cave finds in Sabah, Sarawak, and East Kalimantan indicate that Bearded Pigs have been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Bearded Pig was hunted but was apparently fairly plentiful and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1500-2000 years ago. Overhunting has since led to population declines. In some parts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, Bearded Pigs had already been hunted to near extinction by the 1920s. More recently, the threat of extinction is becoming a reality in many more parts of their range, where overhunting, logging, and conversion of forests have caused a rapid decline in Bearded Pig populations. Overhunting has also likely led to the extermination of many small-island populations. In 1906, such extinctions were reported for the Penata and Kebun Islands in the Burung group of northern West Kalimantan, and presumably extinctions have also occurred in the often densely settled islands where Bearded Pigs used to occur. It has been estimated that hunters in Sarawak take an annual harvest of up to one million or more pigs, making wild pork meat of considerable economic significance. This is quite often related to commercial timber extraction. One typical logging camp in Sarawak killed as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found to be wasteful, with pigs being killed on sight even if the worker did not need the meat. In one logging area, for example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leave the rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day. Bearded Pigs are by far the most preferred species of wild meat throughout Sarawak and Sabah, where they comprise as much as 72% of the dressed weight of all animals hunted. In these areas, the impact of hunting seems clear, with a significant correlation between hunting pressure and animal density. This pattern is so strong that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated, including Bearded Pigs, decreases, until all large animals are locally extirpated. This pattern of high hunting pressure on these animals is also found among Penan and Kenyah tribes in East Kalimantan, where pigs contributed 79-8% of all catches and 91% ofall the edible meat. On average these people consume of 133-6 kg of pig meat per person per year. The estimate for Sarawak is 12 kg of pig meat per person per year. In Peninsular Malaysia, the more sedentary population of Bearded Pigs, apparently associated with continuously fruiting Koompassia-Burseraceae forests, is endangered by hunting as well as habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced on the peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favored Indonesian Banded Pigs (S. scrofa vittatus) over Bearded Pigs in those parts of Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra where sympatry between these species occurs. This poses a further, and potentially serious, threat to Bearded Pigs. Available data indicate that wherever these two species are sympatric, the number of Eurasian Wild Pigs is greater than the number of Bearded Pigs, and that the Eurasian Wild Pig now has a much wider range of distribution than the Bearded Pig throughout these regions. In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya. A comparison between the current distribution of Bearded Pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago, where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear. These animals are also potentially threatened by various contagious diseases. For example, a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the domestic cattle population of south-east Borneo between 1871 and 1872 evidently spread to both domestic pigs and Bearded Pig populations over large parts of Borneo. Several similar and successive outbreaks of rinderpest in domestic cattle between 1878 and 1894 also killed off large numbers of these animals. The most serious may have been an epidemic in 1894, when populations of Bearded Pigs had already been severely reduced by epidemics in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. A final epidemic occurred in 1906, when a great many Bearded Pigs succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area in South Kalimantan. There are no recent records of such epidemics, but the proximity of domestic animals to remaining Bearded Pig populations is a potentially serious threat, particularly at times when the pigs may already be nutritionally stressed.</p> <p>Bibliography. Banks (1931), Barton et al. (2009), Bennett et al. (2000), Boden Kloss (1905), Caldecott (1988, 1991a, 1991b), Caldecott &amp; Caldecott (1985), Caldecott, Blouch et al. (1993), Chin (2001), Cranbrook &amp; Labang (2003), Curran &amp; Leighton (2000), Curran &amp; Webb (2000), Genov (2004), Hancock et al. (2004, 2006), Ickes (2001), Ickes &amp; DeWalt (1999), Kawanishi, Gumal &amp; Oliver (2008), Kawanishi, Richardson &amp; Lazarus (2006), Kempe (1948), Kloss (1931), Knapen (1997), Linkie &amp; Sadikin (2003), Lyon (1908), Medway (1977), Meijaard (2000), Ong et al. (1999), Pfeffer (1959), Pfeffer &amp; Caldecott (1986), Piper &amp; Rabett (2009).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553756388B1B0A4218E0F33A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.text	038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus celebensis Muller & Schlegel 1843	<div><p>14.</p> <p>Sulawesi Warty Pig</p> <p>Sus celebensis</p> <p>French: Sanglier des Célébes / German: Sulawesi-Pustelschwein / Spanish: Jabali de Célebes</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus celebensis Muller &amp; Schlegel, 1843,</p> <p>Manado, Celebes.</p> <p>Genetic studies have suggested that S. celebensis forms two clades, one restricted to northern Sulawesi and the other to the remainder of the species’ range. This can be explained either by the occurrence of two colonization events onto Sulawesi or the historic fragmentation of the island into at least two parts. Taxonomic differentiation between the two clades is not sufficiently supported by morphological studies, although the average skull size of S. celebensis was found to be considerably greater for southern Sulawesi than for northern Sulawesi. Provisionally monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Sulawesi and adjacent Is (Buton, Kabaena, Muna, Peleng, Lembeh, and on some of the Togian Is); thought to be extinct on Selayar I. Pigs have been widely domesticated through the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This primarily involved the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), but also S. celebensis, the only other species of pig successfully domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA studies of the dispersion of these domesticated forms agree on three major dispersal events, two involving S. scrofa and one S. celebensis. Evidence supports an early human-mediated translocation of S. celebensis to Flores and Timor and two later, separate human-mediated dispersals of domestic pig through islands of SE Asia into Oceania. In addition to Flores and Timor, S. celebensis is also thought to occur in its domesticated form on Halmahera, Lendu, Roti, and Savur Is, and even on Simeulue and Nias Is to the W of Sumatra and far from its island of origin, Sulawesi. In the Moluccas, and possibly elsewhere in this region, introduced S. celebensis are thought to have hybridized with other introduced pigs of S. scrofa derivation, and apparent hybrids between these species are now reported to survive on a number of islands, including Salawatti, Great Kei, Dobu, Seram, Ambon, Bacan, Ternate, Morotai, and New Guinea. It is also reported that in the 19" century the sows of domestic pigs in Sulawesi frequently mated with wild animals, after which they returned to their villages.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 80-130 cm, tail 25-35 cm, shoulder height 70 cm; weight 40-70 kg. Adult animals are usually dark-haired, although some individuals are reddish-brown or yellowish in color, sometimes with lighter colored hairs on the trunk and abdomen. There is always a dark dorsal stripe, and a clear yellow snout band is usually present. A short mane and distinct crest of longer hair on the crown or forehead has been recorded for captive animals, but observations on 27 animals in the wild in north Sulawesi found no instances of a crest as long as in the zoo specimens. This might be because, as in the Visayan Warty Pig (S. cebifrons) and the Philippine Warty Pig (S. philippensis), prominent manes and crests may only occur during the breeding season (in the case of these latter species, from late November to April). It is unclear when the wild observations on S. celebensis were made. Young are born with five dark brown and six pale horizontalstripes along the length of their bodies, which they lose at an age of about six months. Adult males have three pairs of facial warts, the preorbital pair being the largest, the infraorbital somewhat smaller, and the mandibular warts emerging from a whorl of hair that first marks their position; the warts enlarge and eventually dominate (at least in captive specimens). The legs are relatively very short, and the back is short and slightly convex. Thetail is long and simply tufted. Adult males are larger than sows, averaging 70 cm at the shoulder in males as opposed to 60 cm in females. Recent forms are larger than the subfossil remains found in caves in southern Sulawesi. S. celebensis has a chromosome number of 38. There are significant differences in the banding of the Y chromosome of S. celebensis, however, when compared with either S. scrofa or the Javan Warty Pig (S. verrucosus).</p> <p>Habitat. This species is reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including rainforests, swamps, high grassland terrains, and agricultural areas. It is found at elevations up to moss forest at about 2300 m, but it prefers valleys.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Little is known about the feeding behavior of S. celebensis. Roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots are thought to constitute the bulk of their diet, with invertebrates, small vertebrates, and carrion as occasional secondary additions. However, no quantitative data are available about percentages of these itemsin their diets, and how this varies over time and in different habitats. Unlike babirusas, S. celebensis has been observed to consume grasses, although this is based on brief observations only.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating is reported to occur in February, although this is based on only one observation. Births can occur at any time throughout the year but sows usually have their young in April or May. Gestation length is not known for certain, and the suggestion that it may be between 16 and 20 weeks should be treated with caution. Farrowing sows give birth in nests made of grasses, leaves, branches, and twigs piled over a shallow excavation approximately 2 m in length. Litter size has been estimated as 2-8 piglets, with an average offive, although a study in North Sulawesi in 1991 found six pregnant sows killed by hunters to be carrying only 1-3 fetuses, with a mean of only 2-17 fetuses per pregnancy.</p> <p>Activity patterns. The Sulawesi Warty Pig is primarily diurnal. Most feeding activity observed in relatively undisturbed areas occurs during the daylight hours, concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Few data exist on group size, but observations around a salt lick recorded single animals (five times), pairs (two times), groups of three (four times), and one group of six. In another population the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1-25 (n = 25) and group size was 2-9, with an average of five (n = 16). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults, and 1-3 adults. These and observations from the 19" century suggest that the species occurs in small troops or families. Densities ranged from 0-4-2 ind/km? in a reserve on the north peninsula to 1:8-19-8 ind/km? and 5-1-14-5 ind/km? in two reserves on the south-east peninsula. A recent study in those reserves found even higher densities in lowland forest (23-5 ind/km?). Such major differences in density are thought to result from varying hunting pressure, with Muslim-dominated areas, where people do not eat pigs, having higher population densities than areas where Christians predominate. With inter-island trade being common, however,it is unclear to what extent Muslimdominated areas become suppliers to the Christian ones. Also, in the south-east peninsula, which is mostly Muslim, S. celebensis has apparently been extirpated, so obviously religious affinity is not sufficient to prevent local extinction of the species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List based on the level of the main threats, habitat loss and hunting. S. celebensis is a species of the central and eastern islands of Indonesia, occurring east of Wallace's Line, which separates the faunas and floras with Oriental affiliation in the west from the Australasian ones in the east. Generally the species is considered to be common, although statements along these lines have been repeated for decades without actual field surveys providing supporting information. S. celebensis has a patchy distribution on most of Sulawesi Island; it is most common in the south-eastern parts of the island. The species has been considered scarce in south-west Sulawesi for over two decades because of ongoing deforestation and hunting. Decreasing sign of pigs in various parts of southern Sulawesi was noted as early as 1938. Extensive logging and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration, have resulted in the marked contraction and fragmentation ofits range in most places. Market surveys also indicate that the species is under high hunting pressure. For example, brief surveys of three village markets in north-eastern Sulawesi concluded that about 2-20 wild pigs per week were being sold by commercial hunters and slaughtered by butchers when needed. Wild piglets that are caught by villagers in Sulawesi are kept and usually raised for slaughter for eating or sold at the local market. The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of the current harvesting rate. The fact that the species is not protected outside certain protected areas, and can therefore be openly hunted and traded, makesit difficult to reduce consumption to more sustainable levels. Surveys within protected areas also show that the species is commonly hunted there, and in three protected areas in north Sulawesi no sign at all was found of S. celebensis. It is clear that there are few if any areas where the species can be considered secure. S. celebensis is of particular interest in that it is the only pig species, apart from S. scrofa that has been domesticated and quite widely transported by human agency outsideits original range. The available evidence indicates that it is still maintained as a domestic in some areas, but its commercial importance and future potential as a genetic resource are unknown.</p> <p>Bibliography. Alvard (2000), Bosma et al. (1991), Budiarso (1991), Burton (2002), Burton &amp; Macdonald (20086, 2008), Clason (1976), Clayton &amp; Milner-Gulland (2000), Clayton et al. (1997), Dobney et al. (2008), Groves (1981), Hooijer (1969), Huffman (1999), Keeling et al. (1999), Larson, Cucchi et al. (2007), Larson, Dobney et al. (2005), Lee et al. (2005), Macdonald (1991b, 1993), Macdonald et al. (1996), Milner-Gulland &amp; Clayton (2002), Nehring (1889), O'Brien &amp; Kinnaird (1996), Riley (2002), von Rosenberg (1865), Toxopeus (1938), Wiles et al. (2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E85536563B8BBB039618A2F808	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.text	038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus verrucosus Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>15.</p> <p>Javan Warty Pig</p> <p>Sus verrucosus</p> <p>French: Sanglier de Java / German: Java-Pustelschwein / Spanish: Jabali de Java</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus verrucosus Boie, 1832,</p> <p>Java.</p> <p>The ancestry of this species has been traced back to some fossil pig species of Java, which combined with phylogenetic data suggests that the S. verrucosus lineage has evolved on Java for approximately two million years. Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>S.v.verrucosusBoie,1832—W&amp;CJava;extinctonMaduraI.</p> <p>S. v. bloucht Groves, 1981 — Bawean I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 90-190 cm, tail 15-25 cm, shoulder height 70-90 cm; weight 35-150 kg. Compared to other species of Sus the Javan Warty Pig is characterized by great elongation of the face, and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male S. verrucosus can be easily distinguished from other species (at least when seen from nearby) by the presence of warts. Observations from two captive S. verrucosus indicate that warts start to grow when youngsters are 17 months old and weigh approximately 25-35 kg. The two pig species on Java are externally quite similar, and it will often be difficult to determine the species when an animal is seen at a distance, or when it is a female (which lack the warts). Compared to the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa), S. verrucosus gives the impression of having a very large, heavy head, at least in adult males. Males of S. verrucosus are much larger than females (c. 90 kg for males as opposed to 45 kg for females). Such pronounced sexual dimorphism is not found in S. scrofa, where the males weigh about the same as the S. verrucosus males, but the females are much heavier than S. verrucosus females. Pelage coloration varies greatly in both species. Generally S. verrucosus appears somewhat reddish, but some individuals look quite black from a distance. The hair on the crown and the mane on the back of the neck are usually paler, often reddish-orange and occasionally approaching blond. In S. verrucosus of all sexes and ages the hair on the belly is predominantly white or yellowish, contrasting with the darker pelage on the upper part of the body. S. scrofa on Java are most often black or grizzled, but reddish-brown individuals are sometimes encountered. The mane is usually black and the belly hairs are also dark, not contrasting with the pelage above. The individual hairs in S. scrofa are of a single type: black with a yellowish band or (when worn) tip. In S. verrucosus there are two hair types intermixed: shorter red or yellow hairs with black tips, and longer black ones. The coloration of piglets in the two Javan pig species differs as well. S. scrofa piglets are longitudinally striped, black-brown and whitish to fawn; the striping is very conspicuous. In S. verrucosus, on the other hand, the striping of piglets is very faint and may be difficult to discern in the field. The shape of the lower canines in male pigs is another good indicator of their specific identity. If a cross section is taken near the base, in S. scrofa the inferior surface is narrower. In S. verrucosus it is as broad as the enamel-less posterior surface. If the width of inferior surface is expressed as a percentage of the posterior surface, for S. scrofa this ranges between 61:5% and 109-1%, and for S. verrucosus it ranges between 113:3% and 161:5%. The canines in females are also distinctive. In S. scrofa they are fairly large: the greatest diameter of the upper canine varies from 16-8 mm to 18-2 mm, and of the lower from 14 mm to 17 mm, overlapping the male range. In S. verrucosus the canines of females are much smaller, the upper measuring 9-3-11-5 mm, the lower 7-3— 10 mm. The race blouchi is distinguished from the nominate subspecies by its smaller size, the relatively low occiput, the red color of the pale hairs in the coat, and the red mane.</p> <p>Habitat. The Javan Warty Pig occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak (7ectona grandis) forest plantations, interspersed with lalang grasslands (/mperata cylindrica), brush, and patches of secondary forest, restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be because the pigs are unable to tolerate low temperatures. They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest. They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava. As with S. scrofa, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations. The two species appear to avoid each other. In the 1920s, their abundance was thought to be similar, but only one species was generally found in a given location. S. scrofa appeared to be better adapted to agricultural areas and heavily degraded forests, and S. verrucosus more restricted to woodlands.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Ecological information about S. verrucosus is rare because when the species wasstill relatively common, extensive descriptions of feeding and breeding ecology did not differentiate between S. verrucosus and S. scrofa. One account from 1928 describes their ecological similarities: both species feed on a range of animal and plant foods, including fallen fruits, roots, worms, and insects. They are particularly partial to ripe rice, making them a feared agricultural pest.</p> <p>Breeding. The gestation period is thought to be about four months, and 3-9 young are born. Most births reportedly occur in the rainy season, from January to March, in a large nest made by the female out ofleaflitter. According to a recent informant, females with young are mostly seen between August and December.</p> <p>Activity patterns. There is little known about activity patterns of S. verrucosus. Interview surveys on Java in 2003 suggest that the species is mostly nocturnal, with several respondents reporting that damage to rice fields almost exclusively happened at night. It could be that a shift from generally diurnal activity patterns in pigs to nocturnal ones is because of the very high hunting pressure on the species.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. No estimates of home range or population density are available. Historically, group sizes of up to 20 animals were reported, though most recent records refer to groups of no more than six individuals during the breeding season and fewer at other times.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is now restricted to several isolated areas on mainlandJava. The Javan Warty Pig is endemic to the islands ofJava, Madura, and Bawean in Indonesia. It occurs alongside S. scrofa vittatus, but it appears that the two species avoid each other and attain their highest densities where the other speciesis absent. S. verrucosus was widespread on Java as recently as 1982, but is now absent from most of the island and survives only in highly fragmented populations. A Java-wide, interview-based survey in 2003 found that there were about ten areas on Java and Bawean where S. verrucosus populations survived, although other small groups may have existed elsewhere. These include remnant and low density populations in west Java in the areas between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, and between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserves of Cikepuh. S. verrucosus is very rare near Purwakarta. Several small populations remain near and south of Garut, with a few reported sightings of S. verrucosus in 2002 and just before. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang, interviewees reported recent killings of S. verrucosus, but the species is now much rarer than in the past. A population of S. verrucosus still remains east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis, although people consider S. verrucosus to be rare in comparison to S. scrofa. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of S. verrucosus from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusa Kembangan, including some from the Nusa Kembangan Nature Reserve off Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into small populations. The only areas where S. verrucosus reportedly remained common were around Subah, where animals were generally seen in small groups of 1-2 individuals and groups of 4-6 during the mating season, and around Blora and Bojonegoro. In the latter area, group size had reportedly declined from 10-20 to only 1-3. No recent records of S. verrucosus exist from Madura Island, and the species is considered extirpated there. On Bawean Island, the only area where the subspecies blouchi occurs, the species is now very rare, and possibly already extirpated. There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 populations (53%) are extirpated or have dropped to low encounter rate levels. [tis thought that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops. Many animals are killed by poisoning. As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation of subspecies blouchi on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals were previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Muslim inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian Wild Pig (S. scrofa) has been speculated as a further threat to S. verrucosus, especially in areas where human-induced habitat changes favor S. scrofa. Recent DNA analysis of one S. verrucosus specimen suggested high levels of inbreeding in the species compared to other Sus species, but no evidence of introgression from S. scrofa was found. Further genetic studies on more samples are needed to assess potential conservation implications of both inbreeding and hybridization.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bartels (1937, 1940, 1942), Blouch (1983, 1988, 1993), Blouch &amp; Groves (1990), Franck (1936), Groves (1981), Hardjasamita (1987), Huffman (2004), Nijman (2001, 2003), Olivier (1925, 1928), Semiadi &amp; Meijaard (2004, 2006), Semiadi et al. (2008), Sody (1936, 1941a, 1941b).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E85535563A8B1908A519ABFC0A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6.text	038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sus scrofa Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>16.</p> <p>Eurasian Wild Pig</p> <p>Sus scrofa</p> <p>French: Sanglier d’'Eurasie / German: Wildschwein / Spanish: Jabali</p> <p>Other common names: Wild Boar; Indochinese Pig (bucculentus), Indonesian Banded Pig (vittatus)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Germany.</p> <p>S. scrofa is the most widespread species of naturally occurring wild pig. Many of the more distinctive regional forms of these animals were originally described as full species, e.g. villatus, cristatus, leucomystax, moupinensis, and meridionalis, respectively from Sumatra, India, Japan, China, and Sardinia. Later and more comprehensive taxonomic reviews have combined many of these taxa into one species, mostly on the recognition that the different forms of S. scrofa formed a stepped cline extending from Western Europe to the Far East and insular South-east Asia. This gradual change in morphological characteristics allowed the combination of the extreme forms on either side of the range (scrofa and wvittatus) into one species. This species is therefore characterized by significant levels of naturally occurring geographic/genetic variation, duly compounded by anthropogenic interferences through widespread releases (whether deliberate or accidental) of pure-bred, hybrid, and domesticated variants originating from other parts ofits wide range. An astonishingly large number of subspecies have therefore been proposed and recognized in the literature, some of which are clearly invalid. Precise analysis of the likely number of truly recognizable/differentiated subspecies is still a matter of debate and disagreement, given that 4-25 subspecies have been recognized by different authors. Of these, C. P. Groves undertook by far the most comprehensive review when proposing the recognition of at least 16 morphologically distinct populations of S. scrofa on the basis of external as well as craniometric characteristics. His work has since been challenged by P. Genov, who proposed recognition of only four subspecies based on similar craniometric analyses, but these analyses were flawed inasmuch as they did not include some of the most distinct populations of these animals. Nonetheless, Genov merged these subspecies into four broadly geographic groupings, thereby broadly mirroring Groves’s more comprehensive review. These were the WESTERN RACES or the “ scrofa group,” at least six, but possibly as many as eight subspecies (scrofa, meridionalis, baeticus, majori, algirus, attila, lybicus, and nigripes), but only two (algirus and meriodionalis) have clearly defined ranges; INDIAN RACES or “cristatus group,” three races (dauvidi, cristatus, and affinis), none with precisely defined ranges; EASTERN RACES or “leucomystax group,” possibly up to seven subspecies (sibiricus, ussuricus, coreanus, leucomystax, riukiuanus, tarvanus, and moupinensis), though only three (leucomystax, riukiuanus and taivanus) have clearly defined ranges; and a highly disctinctive SUNDAIC RACE (viltatus), though presumably genetically continuous with cristatus in the northern limits of its range in Indochina. We follow Groves’s taxonomy because of the strength and breadth of his analysis and his use of external characteristics that were not incorporated in Genov’s analysis. However, new (e.g. phylogenetic) data sets are most likely to strengthen the case for recognizing particular additional subspecies, or elevating some currently recognized subspecies to full species, or merging other, currently recognized subspecies. Groves has questioned whether his subspecies are all variants of one species or a complex of several different species, and has recently proposed the elevation of both vitattus and moupinensis subspecies to full species status. Of these, vittatus is more easily comprehensible, being morphologically and geographically distinguishable as the so-called “Indonesian Banded Pig,” occurring throughout the distal limits of S. scrofa’s range in South-east Asia, whereas S. moupinensis is apparently confined to Myanmar, Indochina, and south-eastern China (Fujian), and therefore also includes the problematic Indochinese Pig (S. bucculentus) from the Annamite Mountains. The taxonomic identity of S. bucculentus remains unclear. Since its description in 1892 by Heude, based on two skulls from Vietnam, only one skull of similar shape and size as the original two has been reported, from Laos. However, reexamination of the skull dimensions of the type specimens and phylogenetic studies suggest that S. bucculentus might not be a distinct species, but a geographically restricted variant of S. scrofa. The possibility that S. bucculentus might be a synonym of S. scrofa is supported by reports from local informants that do not mention facial warts. Warts would be expected if indeed S. bucculentus was more closely related to other South-east Asian warty pigs of the subgenus Euhys. Recent studies have made it more likely that S. bucculentus will be merged with a taxon closelyaffiliated to or part of S. scrofa. As if to complicate matters, Groves has also recently proposed recognition of two more species, namely S. chirodontus described by Heude in 1888 from south-central China (including Kienté, Ningkua, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, and also Korea), and S. ussuricus described also by Heude in 1888 from Heilongjiang and far eastern China and Russia. Similarly sharp boundaries between various other mainland Asia subspecies do not exist, especially given evidence of hybridization between salient forms (e.g. davidi and cristatus). However, until these races are formally described and elevated, we retain the existing taxonomy for S. scrofa. We keep subspecies coreanus for now as it is distinct from wussuricus, but note that it was recently proposed for inclusion in moupinensis. Nineteen subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>S.s.scrofaLinnaeus,1758—WEurope,fromDenmark,Germany,Poland,andCzechRepublictoNItalyandNIberianPeninsula;possiblyalsoAlbania.ThetaxonomicstatusofanimalsinAustria,Switzerland,Slovenia,andSlovakiaisunclearbutpresumablythesepopulationsareincludedinscrofa,asarethepopulationsofSweden,Finland,andtheBalticstates.However,restockingofoncedepletedpopulations,forexampleinItaly,haslikelyinvolvedtheintroductionandmixingofthissubspecieswithothersubspecies,suchasattila.</p> <p>S.s.affinisGray,1847—SIndiaandSriLanka.</p> <p>S.s.algirusLoche,1867—Tunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,onthecoastalsideofthemountainsorinthelowmontaneareas.</p> <p>S.s.attilaThomas,1912—Hungary,Ukraine,C&amp;SBelarus,Romania,Moldova,andSRussiatowardstheNflankoftheCaucasus,butnotincludingtheTranscaucasiancountriesofGeorgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan.TherangepossiblyextendsasfarSastheMesopotamianDeltainIraq,inwhichcaseitwouldlikelyincludeW&amp;SWIran,andpossiblyETurkeyandSyria,whereitborderswithlybicus.SucharangecouldnotbeeasilyreconciledwithastatementbyGrovesthat“thedifferencebetweenpigsfromNandSoftheCaucasusisquitestriking;Transcaucasianboarsarecertainlynotattila.”ThissubspeciesmayalsoextendintoCAsiaandincludeKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan,butnodataexisttosupportthis.</p> <p>S.s.baeticusThomas,1912—originallydescribedfromCotoDonana,SSpain,andlatermergedwithmeridionalis;alsoSPortugal.UnlessevidenceisfoundthattheseItalianandIberianpopulationsaretherelicsofamuchlargerformerlycontiguousrange,thissubspeciesshouldbekeptasdistinct.</p> <p>S.s.coreanusHeude,1897—KoreanPeninsula.</p> <p>S.s.eristatusWagner,1839—HimalayasStoCIndiaandEtoIndochina(NoftheKraIsthmus).</p> <p>S.s.davidiGroves,1981—thearidzonefromEIrantoGujarat,includingPakistanandNWIndia,andperhapsNtoTajikistan.</p> <p>S.s.leucomystaxTemminck,1842—mainIsofJapan(Honshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,Nakadori,Hiburijima,Tojima,Kushima,andothersmallerIs).</p> <p>S.s.lybicusGray,1868—Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey,Syria,Jordan,Israel,Palestine,inthepastalsoinLybia,andEgypt.TheformerYugoslaviawasincludedinitsrange,whichwouldsuggestthatnowSlovenia,Serbia,Croatia,BosniaandHerzegovina,Montenegro,andKosovoarewithintherangeofthissubspecies,althoughtheexactboundariesareunclear.PigsfromAlbaniahavebeenassignedtoS.s.scrofa.</p> <p>S.s.majoriDeBeaux&amp;Festa,1927—C&amp;SItalianPeninsula.</p> <p>S.s.menidionalisForsythMajor,1882—CorsicaandSardinia,withtheprovisothatthetwopopulationsareverylikelytobeintroducedorferal.</p> <p>S.s.moupinensisMilne-Edwards,1871—China,StoVietnamandWtoSichuan.</p> <p>S.s.nigripesBlanford,1875—theflanksoftheTianshanmountainsinKyrgyzstanandNWChina(Xinjiang).AnanimalphotographedinNEIran(Golestan)lookedlikethissubspecies.</p> <p>S.s.nukiuanusKuroda,1924—Iriomote,Ishigaki,Okinawa,Tokunoshima,Amamioshima,andKakeromeIsintheRyukyuchaininextremeSJapan,thoughsomeofthesepopulationshavehybridizedwithintroduceddomesticates.</p> <p>S.s.sibiricusStaffe,1922—MongoliaandTransbaikal(S&amp;EofLakeBaikal).</p> <p>S.s.tawvanusSwinhoe,1863—Taiwan.</p> <p>S.s.ussuricusHeude,1888—farERussiaandtheManchurianregion(China).Koreanpopulationswerepreviouslyincludedinthissubspecies,butbasedonnewevidence,theKoreantaxonseemsmoresimilartomoupinensis.</p> <p>S.s.vittatusBoie,1828—MalayPeninsula,SoftheIsthmusofKra,theoffshoreislandsofTerutaiandLangkawi,Sumatra,RiauArchipelago,Java,Bali,andarangeofsmallerislandsaroundthese,includingBabi,Bakong,Batam,Bawean,Bengkalis,Bintan,Bulan,Bunguran,Cuyo,Deli,Durian,Enggano,Galang,Jambongan,Karimon(RiauIs),Kundur,Lagong,Laut,Lingga,Lingung,Mapor,MoroKecil,NorthPagai,Nias,Panaitan,Payong,Penang,Pinie,Rupat,Siantan,Siberut,Simeulue,Singkep,Sugi,SugiBawa,Telibon,Tinggi,Tuangku,andtheTambelanIs.ThisspecieswasoriginallypresentfromtheBritishIsintheextremeW,throughEurasiafromSScandinaviatoSSiberia,extendingasfarEasKoreaandJapan,andSEintosomeoftheSundaIsandTaiwan.IntheSthespeciesrangedalongtheNileValleytoKhartoum,andNoftheSaharainAfrica,moreorlessfollowingthecontinentalcoastsof S, s, and SE Asia. Within this range it was absent only from extremely dry deserts, e.g. the driest regions of Mongolia and in China W of Sichuan; and alpine zones, such as the high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan. In recent centuries, the range of S. scrofa has changed dramatically because of hunting and changes in available habitat. The species disappeared from the British Is in the 17" century, from Denmark in the 19" century, and was greatly reduced in range and numbers in the 20" century from areas as distant as Tunisia, Sudan, Germany, and Russia. Following these severe declines, there were some slight population recoveries in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Germany in the mid-20™ century, and natural and assisted range expansions in Denmark and Sweden. The species has also been inadvertently reintroduced in various locations in the Great Britain via escapees of mixed origin from commercial farming enterprises. Ex-S. scrofa stocks also occur as introduced feral populations in various other parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand, the eastern Malay Archipelago, and in North, Central, and South America. In all of these areas they are now generally recognized as a major pest</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-200 cm, tail 15-40 cm, shoulder height 55-110 cm; weight 44-320 kg. This is a moderate to large pig with a relatively short muzzle and no facial warts. The species is sexually dimorphic, with females about 80% the size of males. Size varies significantly between subspecies. Generally speaking, S. scrofa follows Bergmann’s Rule, with smaller animals nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared ones in the north ofits range. The coatis coarse and bristly, and varies in color from brown to almost black, usually turning grayish with age. There are great regional differences in color, and nearly white animals are known from central Asia. Several subspecies have dense underwool. The face, cheeks, and throat are slightly grizzled with whitish hairs, becoming distinctly white or forming white bands in some subspecies. The back is rounded and the legs are relatively long, especially in northern subspecies. Young are born generally brown with a pattern of longitudinal darker brown stripes, known aslivery, along their torso. This pattern fades between the second and sixth month, and the juveniles reach adult coloration at one year of age. The head is long and pointed, without an obvious beard, warts, or facial tufts. The upper canines form tusks that curve out and upwards. The lower canines are kept sharp by rubbing against the upper canines. These canines measure about 20 cm in adult males, and in exceptional cases even 30 cm. In females they are smaller. There is significant geographic variation in S. scrofa. WesTERN RACES: The nominate subspecies scrofa has an adult male skull length between 36-3 cm and 40-6 cm, which further increases towards the border ofits range with the subspecies attila. The species is dull to dark brown or olive-gray, with copious dark-gray or red-brown underwool, and a noticeable mane, which is often long and thick. Bodyweight in scrofa varies significantly from 54 kg to over 200 kg in males, with sows being quite a bit smaller (44.6-61. 4 kg). Towards Spain and Italy body size decreases gradually. In northern Spain, the mean body weight of 637 mature males and females was 74-3 kg and 55-3 kg, respectively. The mean head and body lengths of males and females were 154-4 cm and 142-2 cm, respectively. The subspecies baeticus in southern Spain and meridionalis in the islands of Sardinia and Corsica are significantly smaller than scrofa, with mean skull lengths for males between 30-8 cm and 32-7 cm. These similar looking subspecies are colored a dull olive-fawn, with sparse underwool, and mostly lacking a mane. There is obvious clinal variation from north-western Europe to southern Spain, and it is unclear where the boundary between subspecies scrofa and baeticus is. In central and southern Italy, the subspecies major: is apparently smaller than scrofa, with a higher and wider skull. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced scrofa populations, which likely obscures morphological differences. Farther south, in northern Africa, the subspecies algirus is like scrofa but has smaller teeth and a broader occiput. The coat of this subspecies is black with yellowish or reddish tips, dark brown underwool, and not much of a mane. Subspecies attila is very large, with skull length in males over 45 cm. It has relatively small teeth, but M,is long, always over 4 cm. Subspecies attilais usually pale yellow-gray, with hair tips long and straw-yellow, copious brown underwool, and a long mane that extends to the loins. Recent information suggests that the subspecies is less distinct than previously thought and might overlap in size as well as chromosomal arrangement with scrofa. Subspecies lybicus is small, pale and almost maneless. Subspecies nigripes is a pale-colored subspecies with dark legs, which are usually paler behind, a nearly white face, and no mane. It has a very broad skull. Weights of male wild pigs from present-day Uzbekistan and southern Kazakhstan are given as 220-240 kg. Like subspecies scrofa, race nigripes has 36 chromosomes, not the 38 that are usual for the species, but the translocation is different. EASTERN RACES: sibiricus is a fairly small pig with a relatively short face (short nasals and palate) compared to similar sized pigs. It has a very high skull with broad occiput. It also stands out for the shape ofits lacrimal bone (as measured by the proportion between suture height of the lacrimal bone at the orbit and its lower suture length), which is 1-0 for males (n = 7) and 0-87 for females (n = 4). Subspecies ussuricus is the largest of S. scrofa, with male wild pigs often weighing over 300 kg. It has a low-crowned skull and thick pelage, which is yellowish-gray in winter and black in summer when the long, pale hair tips have worn off. Subspecies ussuricus has black legs, sharply paler on the posterior surfaces. The face is black and has a clear mouth-gonion band. Initially, pigs from the Korean Peninsula had been included in race ussuricus, but their small size and genetic as well as morphological similarity to race moupinensis makes that affinity less likely. We presently retain this as a distinct subspecies coreanus, but recognize that it might well be included in moupinenss. Subspecies leucomystax is a smallish, short-legged, yellow-brown pig, with virtually no mane. There is a neat cline of diminishing size from north to south, but this apparently doesn’t warrant further division of this subspecies. The island race riukiuanus is by far the smallest subspecies. On the basis of a small data set, there appears to be no sexual size difference; three males with third molars in wear averaged 26-3 cm, and three females 26-1 cm in “profile length,” which presumably equals greatest skull length. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that this subspecies is more closely related to the mainland China form than to leucomystax from the main islands ofJapan. This is also confirmed by studies of crania and mandibles, which are quite distinct from leucomystax. Subspecies riukiuanus is a prime candidate to be recognized as a full species. Race taivanus from Taiwan is a small black pig with markings on the side of the snout, as judged from camera trap pictures. Measurements of mandibles show considerable overlap between taivanus and leucomystax, but with riukiuanus being quite distinct. The occiput in taivanus is shorter than in leucomystax, with little overhang. Subspecies moupinensis is a fairly small, yellowish (in south of range) or darker (in north), short-maned pig with a broad, high-crowned skull, from most of China and Vietnam. Elevation to full species status was recently proposed for this taxon. SOUTH ASIAN RACES: The subspecies of India, Burma, and western Thailand, cristatus is long-maned, with a coat thatis brindled black, unlike race david: (see below). Subspecies cristatus is more lightly built than European subspecies, and it has a larger and more pointed head, and smaller and more pointed ears. The plane of the forehead is straight, whereas it is concave in the European subspecies. Subspecies cristatus differs little from moupinensis, but has a much longer mane, which extends to the rump. Itis darker than moupinensis. Race davidi is a small, light brown pig, with a long thick mane, and without any black on the legs. Weights of wild pigs from Tajikistan, which might be this subspecies, were reported as 74-144 kg, and occasionally up to 158 kg for males, and 71-123 kg for females. This subspecies belongs to the low-crowned pigs of the western part of S. scrofa’ distribution range, rather than to the eastern pigs of India, China, and the rest of east and South-east Asia. Race affinis of southern India and Sri Lankais larger than cristatus, overall black or occasionally dark brown. MALAYAN RACE: Sometimes referred to as the Indonesian Banded Pig, of peninsular Malaysia and western Indonesia is a small, lowcrowned, short-faced pig with very sparse pelage. It is generally brown or agouti colored, with black legs, and typically has a distinct whitish band extending from either side of the snout to the jowls (hence “banded pig”) and a distinct mane. It has very sparse body hair and no underwool. There is a huge range of size and color throughout this region, but it is so sporadically distributed, with intermediates between the extremes, that it is impossible to divide it up. The species has shorter nasals and narrower occiput than race cristatus. It also stands apart from all other S. scrofa subspecies in the shape of the lacrimal bone and the shape of the rear end of the hard palate.</p> <p>Habitat. S. scrofa is an ecologically very adaptable species, occurring in habitats varying from closed natural and planted forests to open scrublands with some cover. In Europe, the species occurs in agricultural landscapes, as well as riverine and mountainous forests, where it reachesits highest densities in oak-dominated forests. In South-east Asia, S. scrofa is found in mature forests, secondary forests, gardens, and plantations. It can reach very high densities in dipterocarp forests during times of mastfruiting. S. scrofa can cause considerable damage to agriculturalfields. The animals generally avoid open fields but do enter them readily when crops are taller and thus provide cover.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. S. scrofa is a typical omnivorous species. They eat almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse, insects, and small reptiles. They are also known to prey on young deer and lambs, and, in India, have been observed to prey on Chital (Axis axis) and to forcibly appropriate fresh kills from Leopards (Panthera pardus). Vertebrate prey may constitute an important part of the species’ diet in some areas, though studies in Spain revealed that prey items (mostly birds and crayfish) made up only 4% of their diets. Snails and terrestrial arthropods were frequently found but take up less volume. The species causes considerable damage to croplands, with damage to permanent grassland more frequent and more severe than damage to annual crops. S. scrofa is preyed on by a range of species, including Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus), Tigers (FP. tigris), Leopards, Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) and some larger reptiles, such as crocodiles and pythons (Python spp.).</p> <p>Breeding. S. scrofa has a gestation period of 112-130 days. Litters of 5-9 are most common, although both smaller and larger do occur. Piglets weigh 750-1000 g at birth. Just prior to giving birth, the sows leave their social groups and construct well-developed nests in which to give birth, or farrow, a process usually lasting 2-3 hours. The sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days before rejoining their natal family groups, after which piglets will suckle other lactating sows in the group. Young are weaned at 3-4 months, and they will begin to eat solid foods, such as worms and grubs, after about two weeks. The young usually reach sexual maturity at 18 months. Breeding occurs year-round in the tropics, although in more temperate zones the young are born primarily in the spring. In the Ukraine, about 80% of S. scrofa females reproduce annually. Their fertility rate is 7-21+ 0-26 piglets, but during the first year of their life more than 50% of the piglets die. Animals can live over 20 years in the wild, but populations are dominated by younger animals. For example, a Eurasian wild steppe population comprised 58:6% juveniles (the first year oflife), 14-3% yearlings (the second year), 11:5% adult males, and 15-6% adult females. If surprised or cornered, a boar (and particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor. The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are notvisible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Activity of S. scrofa varies geographically but seems to be concentrated between dusk and dawn, and especially between 20:00 h and 24:00 h and around 05:00 h, with a primary resting period at night and a briefer rest during the early afternoon. In areas with high hunting pressure, a shift to nearly exclusive nocturnal activity has been observed. S. scrofa rests in tight groups with bodily contact. The resting places, used several times before being abandoned, are made of troughs lined with leaves and branches. Wallowing is a favorite activity. After wallowing, the Eurasian Wild Pig rubs against trees and bushes, an activity that serves as a territorial marker.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Densities of S. scrofa vary widely depending on habitat quality and mortality rates. To give some examples,in Italy, densities are generally about 3-5 ind/ 100 km?, in Spain they are about 0-7-16-3 ind/ 100 km? and in Switzerland they are about 10 ind/ 100 km ®. In Malaysia, S. scrofa locally reaches population densities of 47 ind/km? at least during times of high food availability. Pig biomass at such times was estimated at between 1346 kg /km?*and 1837 kg /km*. A review of 54 density studies in western Eurasia showed that in the geographical span of 37-60° N, the population densities of Eurasian Wild Pigs declined by three orders of magnitude. Mean January temperature and vegetative productivity were the most important factors explaining the biogeographical variation in population densities of S. scrofa, with the impact of temperature being stronger than that of productivity. The presence of Gray Wolves had a weak limiting effect on population densities of wild pigs at the biogeographical scale. S. scrofa generally occurs in maternal families or sounders averaging 20 individuals, but up to 100 individuals have been reported, albeit perhaps in temporary associations. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around four years of age) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Pigs are excellent swimmers, and have been documented swimming between offshore islands up to 7 km apart.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, except for the subspecies riukiuanus, which has sometimes been listed separately as Vulnerable. The species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations have been severely reduced and fragmented in places where hunting intensity is high (for example, in eastern and south-eastern Asia). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport, or in reprisal for crop damage. In some places, genetic contamination through interbreeding with free-ranging domesticated or feral pigs is also a threat. Areas of special concern include the Ryukyu Islands, south Japan, where the endemic subspecies riukiuanus is internationally recognized as being seriously threatened throughout its extremely restricted and discontinuous range. It is ostensibly protected by the Japanese Government as a national monument. Nonetheless, it is widely hunted for sport and in reprisal for crop damage, and local governmental authorities even pay bounties to farmers for these animals. In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way,it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals. Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases that can decimate their populations. Such catastrophic crashes were reported from Sri Lanka in 1989 due to swine fever, Honshu Island, Japan in 1877, possibly because of hog cholera, and the Iriomote Islands between 1976 and 1980, caused by severe skin disease tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange. The traditional practice of rearing “domestic” pigs in semi-wild conditions has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild populations. Although introduced feral pigs are almost invariably regarded as major pests, some seemingly “ancient” breeds are of particular scientific interest and/or socio-economic importance to local peoples. Most prominent among these are the diminutive wild pigs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Andaman Island suids include the world’s smallest freeranging wild pigs (with the exception of Pygmy Hogs, Porcula salvania), which occur in two distinct “long-snouted” and “short-snouted” morphotypes, and which constitute one of the most important food resources for the few remaining indigenous Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinilese tribal societies. Whilst the Andamanese tribals are traditionally hunter-gatherers, dependent on the continued hunting of the wild pigs and other species, both wild and domestic pigs are of the greatest cultural importance to the Shompen tribal people of the Nicobar Islands, who not only domesticate pigs in large numbers, but have evolved one of the most complex “human-pig” cultures found anywhere in the in the world. A similar situation exists in eastern Indonesia, Papua, and a range Micronesian and Macronesian islands, where domesticated S. scrofa (as well as domesticated S. celebensis) play a very important cultural role.</p> <p>Bibliography. Acevedo et al. (2006), Albayrak &amp; Inci (2007), Appelman (1931), Appolonio et al. (1988), Asada et al. (2001), Behera &amp; Gupta (2007), Chhangani &amp; Mohnot (2004), Ellerman &amp; Morrison-Scott (1951), Endo, Hayashi, Sasaki et al. (2000), Endo, Hayashi, Yamazaki et al. (2002), Endo, Kurohmaru et al. (1998), Endo, Maeda et al. (1998), Fistani (1996), Francis (2008), Galbreath (2007), Genov (1987, 1992, 1994, 1999), Gimenez-Anaya et al. (2008), Giuffra et al. (1999), Groves (1981, 2007), Groves &amp; Oliver (2008), Hebeisen et al. (2008), Ickes (2001), Jayson (1995), Kelm (1939), Kodera (2005), Kumar Chhangani (2002), Li Chonggi et al. (2005), Markina et al. (2004), Massei et al. (1997a, 1997b), Meijaard et al. (2002), Melis et al. (2006), Mitchell (2002), Mona et al. (2007), Oliver &amp; Leus (2008), Oliver, Brisbin &amp; Takahashi (1993a, 1993b), Oliver, Groves &amp; Cox (1993), Pei (2006), Robins et al. (2006), Ruhe et al. (2007), Russo et al. (1997), Santos et al. (2006), Schley &amp; Roper (2003), Schley et al. (2008), Spagnesi &amp; de Marinis (2002), Thurfjell et al. (2009), Volokh (2002a, 2002b), Watanobe, Ishiguro &amp; Nakano (2003), Watanobe, Okumura et al. (1999), Wilcox &amp; Van Vuren (2009), Zhang Baoweiet al. (2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8553456248BC40CA41B2AF4A6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.text	038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Porcula salvania Hodgson 1847	<div><p>17.</p> <p>Pygmy Hog</p> <p>Porcula salvania</p> <p>French: Sanglier nain / German: Zwergwildschwein / Spanish: Jabali pigmeo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Porcula salvania Hodgson, 1847,</p> <p>Sikkim Terai, India.</p> <p>After having been included in Sus for a long time, the species was reassigned to its original genus Porcula. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE India (NW Assam).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 55-71 cm, tail 2: 5 cm, shoulder height about 25 cm; weight 6.6-9. 7 kg. Females are a little smaller and the newborn babies weigh only 150-200 g. The greatest skull length is 17-9 cm. Pygmy Hogs differ from members of the genus Sus in the extreme reduction in body, ears, and tail size, relatively short medial false hooves, and snout disc perpendicular to axis of head. There is an absence or warts or whorls on the jaw, and the body shape is more streamlined than that of other pigs. In adults, the profile tapers from relatively longer hindquarters to smaller forequarters. The adult dentition in the Pygmy Hog is similar to Sus.</p> <p>Habitat. Pygmy Hogs prefer undisturbed grassland typical of early successional riverine communities, comprising dense tall grass mixed with a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and young trees. Such grasslands, dominated by Narenga porphyrocoma, Saccharum spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, and Themeda villosa, form characteristic associations 2-3 m in height. However, most such early successional communities are subject to wide-scale annual burning and accordingly are characterized by low diversity and the overwhelming preponderance of a few, fire-resistant grasses. Therefore they almost certainly constitute suboptimal habitats for Pygmy Hogs and most other grassland dependent species, which are deprived of cover and other resources for protracted periods prior to the early season rains. The species is not found in structurally similar grasslands located in riverine floodplains, which are subject to prolonged inundations during the monsoon. These grasslands are generally fertile alluvial areas, making them desirable for agriculture. Human use of these habitats contributes to the rapid decline of Pygmy Hogs throughout their known or presumed former range.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Pygmy Hogs feed on roots, tubers, shoots, and ground vegetation, along with worms and other invertebrates and, probably, small vertebrates (e.g. reptiles and the eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds).</p> <p>Breeding. Reproduction is strongly seasonal, with almost all births occurring during a single, well-defined birth peak, which coincides with the onset of the monsoon,in late April and May in western Assam. Litter size varies from two to six, but is usually 3-4. The species is unusual among the suids in that nests are constructed and used by both sexes at all times of the year and nest building is not limited to farrowing.</p> <p>Activity patterns. The species seems to be most active during the day, although this remains poorly studied. A study of diurnal activity patterns in captive animals revealed that the highest proportion of observation time was dedicated to foraging and moving, followed by being inside the nest, resting, displaying, and allogrooming. The two sexes partitioned their time rather differently. Females seemed to spend more time on foraging than males, while males moved more than females, which was associated with elevated levels of display behavior and courtship performed by them. Display was exhibited only by males and performed during the breeding season. Allogrooming was the most prominent social interaction observed, with certain individuals grooming more than others. Moreover, among the breeding pairs, males groomed considerably more than females. It is possible that male Pygmy Hogs move a lot and display considerably to increase their potential reproductive success. Because these observations were on captive animals it is not clear how these time budgets would be changed under natural conditions, where the presence of predators and other factors would likely change their behavior.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Adult male Pygmy Hogs usually are seen by themselves, but are reported to join estrous sows during the rut and to associate loosely at other times of the year with the basic natal social family units. These units usually consist of 4-6 individuals, including one or more adult females and accompanyingjuveniles.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, putting the species among the most endangered of all mammals. It is also listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Historically Pygmy Hogs were known from only a few locations in northern West Bengal and north-western Assam in India. The species is now believed likely to have occurred in an area of tall alluvial grasslands that extended in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradesh and southern Nepal to Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan. Records are scarce because the species was seldom observed in the wild state, on account of the former inaccessibility ofits habitat, to which these animals are supremely adapted by virtue of their diminutive body size and other characters. After at least two decades without reported sightings the species was feared extinct. However, in 1971 it was coincidentally “rediscovered” in two separate locations in north-western Assam, Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary in Darrang District and Manas National Park. Subsequent field surveys confirmed its continued occurrence in several other forest reserves in north-western Assam in the late 1970s, but continued commercial forestry operations resulted in its extirpation in all of these areas by the early 1980s and in Barnadi by the late 1980s/ early 1990s, despite the latter area having been upgraded to a wildlife sanctuary to try to protect it. Extensive surveys of grasslands in other parts of its known or presumed former range in other north-eastern Indian states and neighboring parts of southern Nepal and Bhutan during the 1980s and early 1990s also failed to locate any surviving populations. These findings substantiated growing concerns that the species had been reduced to only a few disparate locations in and around Manas National Park, all of which were subject to deliberate dry-season burning and other disturbances. To make matters worse, north-western Assam was also beset by local socio-political turmoils that spilled over into Manas in the early 1990s. Commercial poachers promptly decimated key populations of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi), and other species. Fortunately, Pygmy Hogs were either too small or too difficult to catch to be similarly targeted, though the species nonetheless remains severely threatened throughout its last remaining range, even in Manas, because of degradation of its habitat via profligate levels of dry-season burning, risk of disease through increased incursions by domestic livestock and other factors. The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, flood control schemes, and traditional forestry management practices. Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use offire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect. In fact, large scale burning of grass in the dry season remains the single most important threat to the continuing survival of these animals, though the reduction and fragmentation of their habitat and other anthropogenic disturbances also bring increased risks of contagious disease via contact with domestic livestock and other factors. A “Conservation Action Plan for the Pygmy Hog,” originally prepared by the ITUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, and submitted and agreed upon in principle by both the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Assam State Government, in 1981, was finally and formally approved in 1995. This agreement enables the implementation of various field studies, follow-up status surveys, education and awareness campaigns, personnel training, and local community assistance projects. A highly successful conservation breeding program was also initiated in 1996, following the construction of the “Pygmy Hog Conservation Research and Breeding Centre” located on the outskirts of the Assam State capital, Guwahati, and the capture of two male and four female Pgymy Hogs in Manas. This capture operation, undertaken in close collaboration with Park officials, was timed to coincide with the expected mid-term pregnancy of the adult sows, to increase the number of genetically represented individuals (i.e. wild sows that had been impregnated by other wild males) and therebytriple the number of captive individuals within six weeks. (Three of the four sows produced a total of thirteen infants, all but one of which survived.) Subsequent breeding soon resulted in over crowding and a need to manage the numbers and identities of individuals producing litters each year. A custom-built “pre-release” facility located at Potosali, close to Nameri National Park in north-west Assam, was built, with several large enclosures with habitats where animals scheduled for reintroduction into selected protected sites learned to forage for themselves. The first releases took place in the Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the first wild births were recorded the following year. More releases were conducted in 2009 and 2010, and several additionalsites have been identified for similar reintroduction efforts in the coming years.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bell &amp; Oliver (1992), Deb (1995), Funk et al. (2007), Mallinson (1971, 1977), Narayan (2004), Narayan &amp; Deka (2002), Narayan, Deka, Chakrobarty &amp; Oliver (1999), Narayan, Deka &amp; Oliver (2008a, 2008b), Narayan, Deka, Oliver &amp; Fa (2009), Narayan, Oliver et al. (2008), Oliver (1977, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), Oliver &amp; Deb Roy (1993), Oliver et al. (1997), Sanyal (1995).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038087E8552A56278BBD035F1944F537	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Suidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 248-291, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721014
