identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
6D3587F9FFC5FF93FD8F1B5C81FE8957.text	6D3587F9FFC5FF93FD8F1B5C81FE8957.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tayassuidae Palmer 1897	<div><p>Family TAYASSUIDAE</p> <p>(PECCARIES)</p> <p>• Medium-sized mammals with generally muscular body, large head, elongated, mobile snout ending with nostrils in flat cartilaginous disk, prominent, erect, and rounded ears, robust jaws with long canines, medium to long limbs, and vestigial tail.</p> <p>• 80-140 cm.</p> <p>• Nearctic and Neotropical Regions.</p> <p>• Variety of habitats, including desert, thorn scrub, savanna, and dry and moist forests; from temperate to tropical zones.</p> <p>• 3 genera, 3 species, 20 taxa.</p> <p>• 1 species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6D3587F9FFC5FF93FD8F1B5C81FE8957	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tayassuidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 292-307, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720788
6D3587F9FFC4FF91FF16102586CB8624.text	6D3587F9FFC4FF91FF16102586CB8624.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Catagonus wagneri (Rusconi 1930) Rusconi 1930	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Chacoan Peccary</p> <p>Catagonus wagneri</p> <p>French: Pécari du Chaco / German: Chaco-Pekari / Spanish: Pecari del Chaco</p> <p>Other common names: Giant Peccary</p> <p>Taxonomy. Catagonus wagneri Rusconi, 1930,</p> <p>Argentina.</p> <p>No subspecies currently recognized, but this species remains poorly studied. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Bolivia (SE Santa Cruz, Tarija &amp; probably E Chuquisaca), W Paraguay (Chaco), and N Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, E Salta &amp; Santiago del Estero, and possibly NE Tucuman).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90-117 cm, tail 2:4-10. 2 cm, shoulder height 52-69 cm; weight 29-5— 40 kg. This is the largest ofthe three commonly accepted extant species of peccaries. It has a generally shaggy appearance due to its long bristles. Thefuris brownish-gray with a collar ofpaler hairs across the shoulders and darker andstiffer hairs running down the back. It has white hairs around the mouth, andthe hair on the ears andlegs are paler than in Tayassu or Pecari. The head is larger than that ofthe other peccaries, and thesnout, ears, legs, andtail are longer. The nasal opening is also greater. Most individuals lack hind dewclaws. The molars are functionally lophodont, with higher crowns than the molars of otherliving peccaries, andare adaptedfor a grinding mastication. Males and females are similar in appearance.</p> <p>Habitat. The Chacoan Peccaryis endemicto the dry Chaco of western Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia, and northern Argentina. It has a narrowclimatic and habitat tolerance andis typically found in dense, arid thorn forests in areas of low rainfall (less than 900 mm) and high temperature. This xerophytic forest is characterized by emergent trees, such as Schinopsis lorentzii and Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, and several species of Prosopis. A dense shrub layer includes Ruprechtia triflora, Cercidium sp., Caparis sp., and Acacia sp. There is typically a ground cover of bromeliads and cacti, such as Cereus, Opuntia, Cleistocactus baumannii, and Eriocereus guelichii. Chacoan Peccaries are also found at lower density in open woodland, characterized bytrees such as Tabebuia caraiba and Schinopsis balansae.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Chacoan Peccary feeds on several species ofcacti, including Cleistocactus, Eriocereus, Quiabentia, and Opuntia. It is believedthat this species obtains all or most ofits water from cacti. In addition, it forages on the roots of bromeliads, fruit from various species of Acacia, and Prosopis. Occasionally it browses on fallen cactus flowers and forbs. They occasionally consume carrion and even prey on small mammals. Chacoan Peccaries regularly visit mineral licks opened byleafcutter ant mounds, road building, and land clearings. Minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, and chlorine are found in theselicks.</p> <p>Breeding. Females have one litter a year, and produce theirfirst litters at a minimum age oftwo years, which is later than in the other two species. However, captive females in Paraguay have given birth as young as 1-2 years ofage. Some studies in Paraguay foundlittersizes varying between one and four with averages of 2-7, whereas another study estimated an average litter size of 1-7 for a wild population and presumed that this small litter size resulted from low reproductive rate or high neonate mortality. Gestation time in captivity has been found to be 151 days. Young are born almost yearround, although births probably peak during times of abundant food and rainfall. Females leave the herd to give birth. Newborns are well developed and are able to run a few hours after birth, and their pelage resembles that of adults. Maximumlongevity is unknown, but in the wildit is believedto reach at least nineyears. In captivity, animals have reachedten years and six months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Chacoan Peccaries become active about sunrise and are generally active throughout the day. During extremely intense hot spells they may rest during the day and forage more at night. However, their generally diurnal activity patterns are unusual in the Gran Chaco, one of the hottest environments in South America, and may be a defense strategy to avoid contact with the more nocturnal to crepuscular Jaguar (Panthera onca) and Puma (Felis concolor).</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Chacoan Peccaries are territorial and use home ranges as large as 1100 ha with core areas of about 600 ha in the Paraguayan Chaco. Radio-tracked herds in Paraguay showed continuous movement within their home range, with daily ranges averaging 18 ha. These animals are social and live in small herds of 2-10 individuals, averaging around four, althoughit is also common to find solitary individuals. In hunted areas, group size averages are smaller (1-4 individuals). Herd size and density seem to depend on hunting intensity. Density estimates vary from less than 1 ind/km? to as high as 9-2 ind/km®. In the Argentine Chaco density varied from 0-17 ind/km? in hunted sites to 0-44 ind/km?® in non-hunted sites. The behavior ofthis species seems broadly similar to Collared Peccaries (Pecari tajacu), and includes use oflatrines, mutual scent marking, and marking trees and other objects by rubbing their scent glands against them. They use a varied repertoire of vocalizations to keep herd members together; although the tooth chattering alarm or threat call is heard less commonly than in the other species.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. This species’ geographical distribution has been reduced, and remaining populations are fragmented and declining. The species’ range in the Argentine Chaco has been reduced by approximately 40%, and it has disappeared from large areas. Patterns are similar in Bolivia and in the eastern Paraguayan Chaco. The total population size is unknown. In the early 1990s the population in Paraguay was estimated to be approximately 5000 individuals, and in 2002 the population in Argentina was estimated to be not larger than 3200 individuals. Similarly, the remaining population in Bolivia is probably at most several thousand individuals. A study conducted in the Argentine Chaco in 2003 found the Chacoan Peccary to be the rarest of the three species, and the most vulnerable to human disturbance. A combination of factors threatens this species, including hunting by humans, habitat destruction, diseases, and predation by large felids. Although evidence is sketchy, a major disease event may have led to a population crash in the Paraguayan Chaco during the 1980s. Chacoan Peccaries are hunted for their meat, even in national parks and reserves. The Chacoan Peccary’s hide is thinner and less valuable than those of the other two peccary species, butit was hunted commercially when demand for peccary pelts was high during the 1980s. Because it stands its ground rather than fleeing, this speciesis particularly susceptible to human hunters, who can eradicate whole groups in a single encounter. These peccaries also frequently dust-bathe in groups in open spaces, including on roads, and are active during the day, increasing their vulnerability. Habitat destruction is a major and growing threat. This trend is worsening, due to the commodity price boom driving deforestation. In the Paraguayan Chaco over 2000 km?* have been cleared annually in recent years. In Argentina, approximately 20% of the Chaco forest was lost between 1972 and 2001, equivalentto a rate of 2:2% a year. In Chaco and Santiago del Estero provinces, soy cropland has grown from 284,000 ha to 1,513,000 ha over the last ten years. In addition, habitat degradation due to cattle ranching, charcoal production, firewood harvest, and selective logging are impacting the whole region. In Bolivia, the around 35,000 km? Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area protects a huge area of the dry Chaco where Chacoan Peccaries have been observed, although population levels are unknown. Conditions in the rest of the Bolivian dry Chaco, in Chuquisaca and Tarija, are similar to those found in Argentina and Paraguay, with intensive agriculture expanding. Researchers estimate that across all three countries approximately 50% of the Chacoan Peccary habitat will be lost over a three-generation time period (18 years). In addition, hunting pressures will probably not diminish, further increasing the likelihood of extinction. More research, policy interventions, training, and an increase in public awareness are needed if this speciesis to survive in the wild.</p> <p>Bibliography. Altrichter (2005, 2006), Altrichter &amp; Boaglio (2004), Altrichter et al. (2008), Benirschke et al. (1990), Brooks (1992), Byrd et al. (1988), Maffei et al. (2008), Mayer &amp; Brandt (1982), Mayer &amp; Wetzel (1986), Neris et al. (2002), Noss (1999), Noss et al. (2003), Redford &amp; Eisenberg (1992), Sowls (1984, 1997), Taber (1989, 1991, 1993), Taber et al. (1994, 1993), Wetzel (1977a, 1977b, 1981), Wetzel et al. (1975), Yahnke et al. (1997).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6D3587F9FFC4FF91FF16102586CB8624	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tayassuidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 292-307, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720788
6D3587F9FFC7FF90FFB6122C81888E7F.text	6D3587F9FFC7FF90FFB6122C81888E7F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pecari tajacu Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Collared Peccary</p> <p>Pecari tajacu</p> <p>French: Pécari a collier / German: Halsbandpekari / Spanish: Pecari de collar</p> <p>Other common names: Javelina</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus tajacu Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Pernambuco, Brazil; but Thomas erroneously designated the type locality as Mexico in 1911.</p> <p>The Collared Peccary ancestry seems to have an early divergence from the other peccary lineages in the Americas. P. tajacu has been referred to as both Tayassu tajacu and Dicotyles tajacu. Recent genetic research, however, shows that Collared Peccaries cluster in a separate lineage from the other modern species. This, plus taxonomic complications arising from the use of the latter two genus names, makes the use of P. tajacu most appropriate. Early morphological studies provided evidence of cranial and dental variation among Collared Peccaries from throughout the Americas, although specimens were ultimately grouped into a single species by taxonomists. Recent DNA studies suggest that the geographically widespread and phenotypically diverse Collared Peccary may consist of at least two clades, possibly deserving species status, one in North and Central America and the other in South America. Structural chromosomal differences and possible rearrangements between North and South American specimens have also been observed. DNA also shows Collared Peccaries from Arizona and Texas clustering as separate sister clades, with Mexican specimens split between these two groups. This is consistent with the hypothesis that peccaries in the USA originated from Mexican populations. Given observed morphological, chromosomal, and DNA variation, further study is needed to confirm and/or clarify the presence of intra and/or interspecific differentiation. Also, an Amazonian form from southern Brazil has recently been described as a new species, the Giant Peccary (P. maximus), although peccary specialists have questionedits taxonomic validity. Variationsin size and pelage color, coupled with distribution data, have been the basis for proposing the existence of fourteen subspecies of Collared Peccaries, but the inheritance oftraits has not been tested or otherwise substantiated.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.t.tajacuLinnaeus,1758—AmazonBasintoNArgentina.</p> <p>P.t.angulatusCope,1889—SUSA(SENewMexico&amp;Texas)throughNEMexico.</p> <p>P.t.bangsiGoldman,1917—CPanamaalongNWColombia.</p> <p>P.t.crassusMerriam,1901—ECMexico(SSanLuisPotositoVeracruz).</p> <p>P.t.crusnigrumBangs,1902—NicaraguatoWPanama.</p> <p>P.t.humeralisMerriam,1901—WCMexico(ColimatoOaxaca).</p> <p>P.t.nanusMerriam,1901—SEMexico(CozumelI).</p> <p>P.t.nelsoniGoldman,1926—SMexico(Chiapas&amp;SYucatanPeninsula)toBelizeandCGuatemala.</p> <p>P.t.migerJ.A.Allen,1913—SWColombiaandWEcuador.</p> <p>P.t.nigrescensGoldman,1926—SGuatemala,ElSalvador,andHonduras.</p> <p>P.t.patiraKerr,1792—NSouthAmerica(Colombia,Venezuela,theGuianas,NEPeru,andthetopendofNC&amp;NEBrazil).</p> <p>P.t.sonoriensisMearns,1897—SWUSA(SArizona&amp;SWNewMexico)toWMexico(SonoratoJalisco).</p> <p>P.t.torvusBangs,1898—NWSouthAmerica(SColombia,Ecuador,andNCPeru).</p> <p>P. t. yucatanensis Merriam, 1901 — SE Mexico (Tabasco &amp; N Yucatan Peninsula) to N Guatemala.</p> <p>Collared Peccaries are also present in Trinidad and Tobago and it seems likely that they belong to the subspecies patira. However, assesmentofthis is yet to be done. The Collared Peccary was introduced to Cuba in 1930, butis no longer found in the wild there.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 84-106 cm, tail 1-10 cm, shoulder height 30-50 cm, ear 2:7.9-8 cm, hindfoot 16-25 cm; weight 15-28 kg, but reaching 40-42 kg in Arizona and Peru. There is one inguinal and one abdominal pair of mammary glands. The coat color is typically speckled dark blackish-gray, blacker on the limbs and along the dorsal crest, with a whitish band or collar passing across the chest and shoulders. More reddish or dark brownish coat colors are found in some populations. Also, the characteristic paler collar may vary from highly distinct in some individuals to barely discernable in others. The juvenile coat is grizzled reddish-tan with a distinct dark brown mid-dorsal stripe and pale shoulder collar.</p> <p>Habitat. The Collared Peccary is the most widely distributed of the three extant species. It has wide climatic tolerance and is adapted to a variety of habitats and ecosystems. It inhabits subtropical and tropical ecosystems including rainforest, semi-arid thorn forest, montane cloud forest, deserts, islands, scrublands, savannas, and freshwater wetlands. The upper limit of its range along the Andean foothills is 1000-1500 m. However, there are reports of this species being found at up to 2000 m above sea level in Ecuador, and exceptionally up to 3000 m in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala. At the northern limit ofits range, Collared Peccaries are found in areas where midday temperatures reach 45°C, relative humidity is below 6%, annual rainfall is less than 250 mm, winter nighttime temperatures fall below 0'C, and light snow cover is occasionally present. At the other extreme, it inhabits tropical forest where average midday temperatures are around 27C, with high humidity (80%) and annual rainfall that often exceeds 2000 mm per year. In the Pantanal of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay temperatures average about 24-25C, but can range from 0°C to 40°C with yearly rainfall of 1000-1400 mm. This species’ tolerance for low seasonal temperatures is exceptional for an animalalso living in the tropics, emphasizing its behavioral and physiological adaptability.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The collared Peccary uses its mobile lips and snout, and its welldeveloped sense of smell, for finding and manipulating food, as well as to monitor its surroundings. Its diet is as diverse as its wide distribution and the range of habitats it occupies. It feeds on a variety of plants and plant parts including roots, bulbs, tubers, fruits, seeds, and the edible parts of green plants, as well as small invertebrates and vertebrates. Diets vary seasonally depending on food availability. In tropical forests, Collared Peccaries are highly frugivorous, consume fruit from over 128 plant species, and eat seeds from some 79 species. In desert environments the cladophylls of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia) are an important source of food as well as water. This animal plays an important role in seed dispersal, maintaining tree species diversity, and otherwise affecting the structure and plant species composition of its habitats.</p> <p>Breeding. Collared Peccaries breed throughout the year, with peaks from November to March in the northern border of the species’ distribution. In the Peruvian Amazon peaks in conceptions were observed in January, July, August, and October. The gestation period is from 141 to 151 days and usually 1-2 offspring are born, butlitter sizes of up to four have been reported. The young follow their mothers within an hour of parturition, stopping to suckle at frequent intervals. Infants have been observed to spend up to 24% of their time suckling. Weaning occurs at approximately six weeks. Females may have more than one mate during the estrous cycle and no long-term pair-bonds appear to exist, although dominant males in groups seem to have higher mating success. However, details of the mating system and familial relationships have not been validated through genetics.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Collared Peccaries have a generally diurnal/crepuscular activity pattern, typically feeding in the early hours of the night, but varying seasonally depending on temperature, food availability, and hunting pressure. They appear to travel more in the early morning and late afternoon when the full herd is together. Collared Peccaries rest during the late morning and early afternoon in small groups of 3—4 individuals, typically in burrows, caves, underlogs, or in cavities excavated at the bases of large trees and next to fallen trunks. In the intense heat of the Gran Chaco, they tend to be more nocturnal. They also wallow in mud or dust, butit is uncommon to see them grooming themselves.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Collared Peccary herd size varies from six to over 30 individuals, depending on habitat. Density range is from 1-1-10-9 ind/km? in the USA, 2-8 ind/km? in the gallery forests and the Llanos of Venezuela, fewer than 1-6-6 ind/km? in the Pantanal of Brazil, and 5-9 ind/km? in tropical forests. Exceptionally large groups, of about 50 have been seen in the Brazilian Amazon where White-lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari) populations have declined, suggesting that interspecies competition may limit group size. This speciesis generally territorial, and defends a core area from conspecifics. Home ranges average approximately 150 ha, varying from 24 ha to 800 ha, specifically: 102-287 ha in the semi-deciduous Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil, 64-109 ha in north-western Costa Rica, 460-543 ha on Maraca Island of Brazil, 685 ha in the Paraguayan Chaco, and 157-243 ha in French Guiana (including overlapping areas between adjacent herds). The dorsal gland of the Collared Peccary contains both sebaceous and sudoriferous secretory tissues that produce some 20 volatile components, some specific to males or females. They deposit scent on each other, as well as on tree trunks, rocks, and other objects, likely to mark range boundaries. Eight types of vocalizations have been identified including purring, grunting, barking, woofing, growling, and squealing as well as jaw snapping. It is believed that vocalizations and scent help keep the herd together. Collared Peccary group and subgroup membership are reported to be stable, with data suggesting that individuals rarely move between herds. However, radio-tracking in Arizona documented the acceptance of outsider male into herds; and observational and genetic studies have shown strong subadult male-biased dispersal among 13 social groups in Texas.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II, except populations of Mexico and USA, which are not listed. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although this species is widely distributed, and occurs in a variety of habitats,its status requires monitoring as it is ecologically important and helps maintain livelihoods of local people. Further,its taxonomy needs urgent updating as some possible taxonomic units (species or subspecies) are likely vulnerable. In Argentina, the species was extirpated from the provinces of Corrientes, Entre Rios, Santa Fe, South of Cordoba, and South-east of Santiago del Estero. The principal threats to the Collared Peccary, like other members of this family, are overhunting for subsistence and the bushmeat and hide trade, as well as habitat loss and degradation. These factors have fragmented populations and led to local extinction. Impacts on population dynamics, subgroup interactions, and genetic diversity could reduce this species’ ability to adapt to environmental challenges and introduced diseases. Collared Peccaries are commercially valuable in Peru where approximately 50,000 pelts are legally exported annually under CITES. They were originally included in Appendix III of CITES but were moved to Appendix II in 1986, in part to tighten restrictions on trade in peccary products to help conserve the endangered Chacoan Peccary. Pelts are tanned in Peru and primarily sold to the European leather industry for the manufacture of high quality gloves and shoes. Collared Peccaries are protected by laws and regulations across much of their range, butillegal harvesting and inadequate protection and/or enforcement is common. Populations are managed for sports hunting in the USA. In Texas, efforts to restore populations have been successful, but translocations need to insure that group and family structures are maintained. Accidental release of captive Collared Peccaries in areas distinct from their geographical origin has happened and should be prevented to reduce unnecessary gene flow between lineages and disease risks. The species is expanding northwards and it is colonizing areas between the ranges of the two Collared Peccary subspecies in the south-western USA.</p> <p>Bibliography. Adega et al. (2006), Albert et al. (2004), Altrichter &amp; Boaglio (2004), Altrichter, Carrillo et al. (2001), Altrichter, Saenz et al. (2000), de Azevedo &amp; Conforti (2008), Barreto et al. (1997), Beck (2005, 2006), Beck et al. (2008), Bissonette (1982), Bodmer (1989a, 1989b), Bodmer &amp; Sowls (1993), Bodmer, et al. (1990), Builes et al. (2004), Byers &amp; Bekoff (1981), Castellanos (1983), Chebez (2008), Cooper et al. (2010), Corn &amp; Warren (1985), Culen et al. (2000), Day (1986), Desbiez et al. (2009), Donkin (1985), Eisenberg (1980), Gongora, Bernal et al. (2000), Gongora, Morales et al. (2006), Gongora, Taber et al. (2007), Gottdenker &amp; Bodmer(1998), Green et al. (1984), Grubb &amp; Groves (1993), Hall (1981), Hannon et al. (1987), Hellgren et al. (1995), Keddy &amp; Fraser (2005), Keuroghlian &amp; Eaton (2008a, 2008b), Keuroghlian et al. (2004), Kiltie (1981a, 1981b, 1985), Lamit &amp; Hendrie (2009), Mayer &amp; Brandt (1982), Mayor et al. (2007), Nogueira et al. (2007), Ojasti (1996), Packard et al. (1991), Peres (1996), Pontes &amp; Chivers (2007), Robinson &amp; Eisenberg (1985), Schaller (1983), Schweinsburg (1971), Sowls (1984, 1997), Stangl &amp; Dalquest (1990), Taber et al. (1994), Tedfilo et al. (2007), Terborgh et al. (1986), Varona (1973), Vassart et al. (1994), Waterhouse et al. (1996), Weckel et al. (2006), Wetzel (1977a, 1977b), Woodburne (1968), Wright (1998).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6D3587F9FFC7FF90FFB6122C81888E7F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tayassuidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 292-307, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720788
6D3587F9FFC6FF97FA191A1280DB8427.text	6D3587F9FFC6FF97FA191A1280DB8427.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Tayassu pecari Link 1795	<div><p>3.</p> <p>White-lipped Peccary</p> <p>Tayassu pecari</p> <p>French: Pécari a levres blanches / German: WeilRbartpekari / Spanish: Pecari barbiblanco</p> <p>Taxonomy. Sus pecari Link, 1795,</p> <p>Cayenne, French Guiana.</p> <p>Currently five subspecies are recognized, but these taxa have not been validated through DNA, and further populationlevel genetic and morphological research is needed. Cytogenetic research has revealed X-chromosome polymorphisms between specimens from the mid-western and south-western regions of Brazil, and those from Costa Rica; however, these have not been associated with subspecies distributions.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>T.p.pecariLink,1795—Colombia,Venezuela,theGuianas,andNBrazil(NofAmazonRiver).</p> <p>T.p.aequatoreLonnberg,1921—SWColombiaandWEcuador.</p> <p>T.p.albirostreIlliger,1815—SBrazil,EPeru,Bolivia,Paraguay,andNArgentina(EJujuy,Salta,Formosa,Misiones,Chaco&amp;SantiagodelEstero).</p> <p>T.p.nngensMerriam,1901—SEMexicotoNicaragua.</p> <p>T. p. spiradens Goldman, 1912 — Costa Rica to N Colombia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 90.5-139 cm, tail 1.6-5 cm, shoulder height 40-60 cm, ear 6.4-9 cm, hindfoot 16.5-25 cm; weight 25-40 kg. No morphological dimorphism occurs between the sexes. There is one inguinal and one abdominal pair of mammary glands. The coat color varies with geographic region, ranging from dark reddishbrown to black, with white-cream coloration on the ventral region. The hair along the throat and distal rostrum is white; hence it is named the White-lipped Peccary. The pelage is bristly and there is a mane of long stiff hairs along the mid-dorsal line from the crown to the rump. When individuals encounter threats from predators or conspecifics they often erect the dorsal mane.</p> <p>Habitat. Approximately 62% ofits distribution is within tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (e.g. Costa Rica, Peru). Brazil alone encompasses 66% ofits total distribution. White-lipped Peccaries also utilize tropical and subtropical dry forest like the Gran Chaco of Bolivia and Argentina, savanna, dry grassland, seasonally inundated forest-savanna systems, and coastal mangroves. Their altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to over 1900 m on the eastern slopes of the Andes. White-lipped Peccaries tend to frequent areas close to water (i.e. lakes, rivers, and wetlands) and may even visit coastal beaches to forage, for instance on turtle eggs.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. White-lipped Peccaries utilize a wide variety of food resources including fruits, seeds, stems, leaves, tubers, roots, rhizomes, invertebrates, turtle and bird eggs, frogs, fishes, snakes, small mammals, and carrion. Behavioral observations, analyses of stomach contents, and feces indicate that fruit and seeds are primary food resources, followed by leaves and roots. Earthworms are also important, providing a significant protein source. Many trees drop their fruits underneath the canopy to attract frugivores, including herds of White-lipped Peccaries. They bulldoze through the leaf litter and topsoil, trampling juvenile plants, while searching for fruits and seeds. Their foraging behavior can affect understory plants and tree seedling survival, thus influencing forest structure and species composition. White-lipped Peccaries consume fruits and seeds from over 144 different plant species belonging to 38 families. In tropical moist forest the four most frequently utilized plant families are Arecaceae (24%), Fabaceae (14%), Moraceae (10%), and Sapotaceae (8%). In these habitats Arecaceae, the palm family, is their most important food, given its high abundance, highly nutritious fruit, and year-round availability, including during the dry season when food is scarce. White-lipped Peccaries have evolved a powerful mastication apparatus, with interlocking canines, thick enamel, and specialized muscles enabling a bite force of over 300 kg —the strongest amongst the peccary species. This allows them to exploit additional food resources and to destroy over 78% of the seeds they consume. This niche separation reduces interspecific competition between sympatric peccary species. White-lipped Peccaries also disperse seeds, especially of small-seeded species such as figs (Ficus). Given an up to three-day retention time in the gut, seeds that escaped mastication could be dispersed over distances of tens of kilometers. A few seeds, such as from moriche palm (Maunritia flexuosa), are too hard even for White-lipped Peccaries, and the animals only scrape off the fruit pulp, spitting out the seeds close to the parent tree. The peccaries may then trample the seeds into the muddy soil, protecting them from insect and fungal predation. This short-distance seed dispersal may lead to clumped species distribution, as seen in Mauritia palms. Many studies have demonstrated that trophic (seed predation, and long and short distance seed dispersal), and non-trophic (trampling and bulldozing of seedlings) peccary-plant interactions influence the recruitment, spatial distribution, and population dynamics of many plant species. By reducing competitive exclusion among plants, peccaries play an outsize role in maintaining and promoting botanical diversity in tropical forests.</p> <p>Breeding. Breeding seasonality is highly variable and, among other factors, may depend on habitat and food resource availability. In Mexico and Suriname, Whitelipped Peccaries breed year-round. In Costa Rica and the Peruvian Amazon, however, peak births occur from June to September, coinciding with the fruiting season. Studies from captivity and the field indicate a gestation period of 156-162 days. The majority of births are twins; although litters of singletons and triplets are also found. The precocial neonates weigh 1.1-1. 4 kg, and have a reddish-brown coat. They stay close to their mother and are weaned around six months. Promiscuous suckling has been observed in captive White-lipped but not Collared Peccaries. Sexual maturity is reached between one and two years of age, and the life span in the wild is around 13 years.</p> <p>Activity patterns. This species is primarily diurnal, with activity peaks in the morning and afternoon. However, White-lipped Peccaries extend orshift their activity towards dawn and dusk (crepuscular) and into the night when food resources are scarce (i.e. during the dry season), temperatures are high, and where human disturbance and hunting occurs.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. White-lipped Peccaries are the most gregarious terrestrial mammal species within the Neotropics. Herd sizes vary from five to over 400 individuals, with historical accounts of groups of over 1000 animals. Smaller herds tend to be found in areas with intense human hunting and/or relatively smaller fragments of suitable habitat. These peccaries often represent the highest mammalian biomass (230 kg /km?) in the ecosystems they inhabit, placing major demands on food resources and requiring continuous habitat to maintain populations. Groups contain male and female juveniles, subadults, and adults. Living in large groups helps them save energy as individuals avoid searching places recently foraged by conspecifics. It also reduces individual predation risk, and enables collective counterattacks against predators such as Jaguar (Panthera onca) and Puma (Felis concolor). Groups may break into smaller units and reunite later, depending on resource dispersion patterns. This fusion-fission behavior seems a mechanism to reduce interspecific competition for food. Genetic analyses of two populations of White-lipped Peccaries, separated by 80 linear kilometers in the southern Pantanal of Brazil, showed low levels of differentiation indicative of gene flow between these groups. However, more research is needed on population genetics, dispersal, group formation, corridor use, and migration in this species. Numerous abiotic and biotic factors, including habitat type, resource availability, and human disturbance affect their density, movement patterns, and home range size. In large protected tropical rainforests, such as Peru’s Manu National Park (over two million hectares), peccaries roam freely, and herd sizes can reach hundreds of individuals with home ranges encompassing over 200 km? Some researchers have considered White-lipped Peccaries nomadic or even migratory because herds may travel over 10 km /day. However, in fragmented landscapes in the Atlantic Forest, in southern Brazil, home ranges vary between 1879 ha and 2300 ha. Studies on smaller herds in Costa Rican tropical moist forest found home ranges between 2145 and 3780 ha; herds in the tropical semi-dry forest of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, used ranges of 4360-12,100 ha. The greatest proportion of their daily activities includes feeding (34%) and moving between foraging patches (33%). Densities vary with habitat type and levels of human perturbation. In southern Brazil, densities varied between 3-9 ind/km? and 10-2 ind/km?, whereas at one site in the northern Brazilian Amazon a density of 139 ind/km? was found. In the dry forest of the Argentine Gran Chaco a density of 0-33 ind/km? was found in hunted sites versus 1-04 ind/km? in non-hunted sites. These results are similar to the 0-43 ind/km® documented in the semi-dry forest of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Populations decline rapidly under intense hunting pressure, and can lead to local extinction. Like other peccaries, their vocal repertoire includes low-frequency barking, growling, moaning, high-pitched squealing, and tooth clacking. As groups forage and move through the understory, individuals emit soft vocalizations,facilitating group coherence. Alarm calls and teeth clashing are emitted when threats are detected; as multiple individuals emit alarm calls a threshold is reached at which point the whole group may take off, either together or scattering in subgroups, creating a confusing cacophony of sound and movement.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. They face multiple threats, foremost being wide-scale habitat destruction, and intensive subsistence and commercial hunting. Throughout most of their range they are a vital source of protein and income for local people. However, within the last century the distribution of White-lipped Peccaries has been reduced by over 21%. They have been driven to extinction in an area of over 1,095,666 km? and today have a high probability of long-term survival in only 47% of their range. Major population declines, including local extinction, have particularly occurred in savannas, grasslands, and tropical dry forest habitats. They are extinct in El Salvador, and their distributions have declined by over 89% in Costa Rica, 84% in Guatemala and Mexico, 63% in Argentina (recently has disappeared from Tucuman, Corrientes, and possibly Santa Fé), and 13% in Brazil. In Roraima State, northern Brazilian Amazon, there have been reports of declining densities; from 139-542 ind/km? in 1988 to 1:4-8-3 ind/km* in 1992, after a population crash probably due to an epizootic. Habitat destruction and hunting are threatening populations across 70% of their range. Conservation actions must focus on habitat protection and the regulation and management of hunting. Large continuous tracts of diverse habitats need to be conserved, and connectivity between existing fragments needs enhancementto facilitate dispersal and promote gene flow between isolated populations. Given their roles as ecosystem architects, and in structuring habitat across the Neotropics, their management and conservation needs to be founded on whole ecosystem management and precautionary principles. These principles, yet to be developed, are necessary to avoid further trophic meltdown and biodiversity loss. This species would be an ideal umbrella species for biodiversity conservation action and planning across the Neotropics.</p> <p>Bibliography. Altrichter (2005), Altrichter &amp; Almeida (2002), Altrichter &amp; Boaglio (2004), Altrichter, Carrillo et al. (2001), Altrichter, Saenz &amp; Carrillo (1999), Beck (2005, 2006, 2008), Beck &amp; Terborgh (2002), Beck et al. (2010), Biondo et al. (2008), Bodmer (1991), Bodmer et al. (1997), Carrillo et al. (2002), Chebez (2008), Eisenberg &amp; Redford (1999), Fragoso (1994, 1997, 1998a, 1988b, 1999), Giannoni et al. (1981), Hufty et al. (1973), Keuroghlian &amp; Eaton (2008a, 2008b), Keuroghlian et al. (2004), Kiltie (1981a, 1981b, 1982), Kiltie &amp; Terborgh (1983), March (1993), Mayer &amp; Wezel (1987), Peres (1994, 1996), Peres &amp; Lake (2003), Reyna-Hurtado et al. (2008), Sowls (1997), Taberet al. (2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6D3587F9FFC6FF97FA191A1280DB8427	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tayassuidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 292-307, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720788
