identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
9525582DFF892605F379FE2EF856FB9B.text	9525582DFF892605F379FE2EF856FB9B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procaviidae Thomas 1892	<div><p>Family PROCAVIIDAE</p> <p>(HYRAXES)</p> <p>• Small, solidly built mammals with round ears, short legs, and rudimentary stump fortail.</p> <p>• 30-60cm.</p> <p>• Palearctic and Afrotropical Regions.</p> <p>• Tropical forest, woodland, savanna, desert, rock boulders, and alpine zones of higher mountains; from sea level to 4000 m.</p> <p>• 3 genera, 5 species, 57 taxa.</p> <p>• No species threatened; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF892605F379FE2EF856FB9B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
9525582DFF8B2601F192FE30FB74FD40.text	9525582DFF8B2601F192FE30FB74FD40.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procavia capensis Pallas 1766	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Rock Hyrax</p> <p>Procavia capensis</p> <p>French: Daman des rochers / German: Klippschliefer / Spanish: Daman de rocas</p> <p>Other common names: Klipdassie; Abyssinian Hyrax (habessinica), Cape Hyrax (capensis), Johnston Hyrax (johnstoni), Kaokoveld Hyrax (welwitschii), Western Hyrax (ruficeps)</p> <p>Taxonomy. Cavia capensis Pallas, 1766,</p> <p>South Africa, Western Cape Prov., Cape of Good Hope.</p> <p>Recent authors have recognized only a single species, P. capensis. However, some authorities consider P. capensis to be restricted to southern Africa and treat the following as distinct species: P. welwitschii, south-western Angola and Namibia; P. ruficeps, North and West Africa, and Sudan; P. johnston, south-western Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe; and P. habessinica, Egypt, Sudan, Israel, and Arabian Peninsula. Recent studies on geographic variation in mtDNA in South Africa indicate that at least two species exist in what has conventionally been regarded as P. capensis. Further genetic studies over the whole range will most likely divide Procavia into several species. Chromosome number is 2n = 54. The X chromosomeis the largest, with a submedian centromere; the Y chromosome is a very small acrocentric. No fewer than seventeen subspecies have been recognized and more than 65 synonyms are listed. The validity of many of these is doubtful, and some may actually represent distinct species.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.c.capensisPallas,1766—SouthAfrica,includingLesothoandSwaziland.</p> <p>P.c.bamendaeBrauer,1913—CameroonandCentralAfricanRepublic.</p> <p>P.c.capillosaBrauer,1917—SEthiopia.</p> <p>P.c.erlanger:Neumann,1901—SSomalia.</p> <p>P.c.habessinicaHemprich&amp;Ehrenberg,1832—Egypt,NSudan,Israel,SaudiArabia,andYemen.</p> <p>P.c.jacksoniThomas,1900—EKenya.</p> <p>P.c.jayakariThomas,1892—Oman.</p> <p>P.c.johnston:Thomas,1894—SWTanzania,Malawi,Mozambique,andZimbabwe.</p> <p>P.c.kerstingiMatschie,1899—TogoandBenin.</p> <p>P.c.mackinder:Thomas,1900—WKenya.</p> <p>P.c.matschietNeumann,1900—DRCongoandTanzania.</p> <p>P.c.pallidaThomas,1891—NSomalia.</p> <p>P.c.ruficepsHemprich&amp;Ehrenberg,1832—NandWAfrica.</p> <p>P.c.scioanaGiglioli,1888—NEthiopia.</p> <p>P.c.sharicaThomas&amp;Wroughton,1907—Chad.</p> <p>P.c.syriacaSchreber,1784—Syria,Lebanon,Jordan,andIsrael.</p> <p>P. c. welwitschii Gray, 1868 — SW Angola and Namibia. The distribution information for this species is still incomplete; the Rock Hyrax is also present in Eritrea, Niger, Nigeria, C &amp; S Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia and E Botswana, but the subspecific identity of these populations still requires confirmation.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 39-58 cm; weight 1.8-5. 4 kg. Males and females are approximately the same size. The average adult size varies greatly across Africa, and seems to be closely linked to average annual precipitation, which in turn affects the availability of food; size increases up to a mean annual rainfall of 700 mm and decreases thereafter. On the other hand,size variation in the skull of Rock Hyraxes from different regionsis positively correlated with temperature, indicating that this species conforms to Bergmann’s rule. There is extensive variation in coat color, which varies widely throughout their range from a yellowish-buff to a dark brown; this variation has been associated with mean annual rainfall patterns. The pelage is dense, up to 25 mm long, and has a grizzled appearance due to banding of the hairs (dark at the base, with a paler band of varying width and a black tip). Underfuris short, soft, and thick. The underparts are paler in color than the upper, and the hair is slightly longer and lacks the banding. Long black vibrissae (tactile hairs) 60-70 mm in length (though longer on the face) are widely distributed over their bodies, probably for orientation in dark fissures and holes. Rock Hyraxes have a dorsal gland, surrounded by a creamy, yellowcolored (typical of ruficeps) or brown to black (typical of capensis) margin of hairs that can be fanned when the animal is excited; this dorsal margin is not conspicuous in the Rock Hyrax of southern Africa. Females have three pairs of mammae, one pair pectoral and two pairs inguinal. Testes are permanently abdominal and the uterus is duplex. The penis is short, simply built with a slightly elliptical cross section, the diameter increasing slightly toward the tip. Mean distance between anus and penis is 35 mm. Characteristic features of the skull of the Rock Hyrax include: widely spaced and anteriorly situated eye sockets; well-developed interparietal; small tympanic bullae; the premaxillae form a tubercle between the incisive foramina; the coronoid process is small and recurved; and the hyoid bone is unusually scoop-shaped in structure. The zygomatic arches are broad and heavily built, indicative of a powerful set of masseter muscles that operate the lowerjaw. In contrast to the typically hyracoid dentition, dental formula is typically 11/2 C0/0 P 4/3 M 3/3 (x2)= 32, although specimens from northern parts of Africa often have the first lower premolar present (as in Heterohyrax brucei). The length of the upper molar toothrow M'~ is much greater than that of the premolar toothrow P'**. The two upper, ever-growing incisor teeth, one on each side, are separated by about the width of one tooth. The upperincisors are tusk-like, ridged or triangular in cross-section in males, but rounded in females.</p> <p>Habitat. Rock Hyraxes occupy a wide range of habitats, from arid deserts to rainforest, and from sea level to the alpine zone of Mount Kenya at 4000 m. However, as their name implies, Rock Hyraxes are dependent on the presence of rocky outcrops (kopjes), mountain cliffs, or loose boulders that provide suitable refuge in the form of crevices and crannies in which to shelter. The nature of the refuge environment differs substantially across Africa, but rock outcrops appear to be favored due to the extensive networks of crevices and fissures, access to safe foraging areas, and good vantage points. Overall the refuge environment provides stability compared with the surrounding habitats, where conditions are more extreme. However, Rock Hyraxes also have been found in erosion gullies (e.g. in the Karoo, a habitat they have colonized recently), in culverts under roads, holes in stone walls, and even in the holes of other species such as Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and Meerkat (Suricata suricatta). These refuges seem to be common in areas where rocky habitats are overpopulated; Rock Hyraxes may traverse considerable distances between areas of suitable rocky habitat. In several parts of Africa (e.g. the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, Matobo National Park in Zimbabwe, and the northern parts of South Africa), Rock Hyraxes and Bush Hyraxes (Heterohyrax brucei) occur together and live in close associations on rocky habitats. Rock Hyraxes are the most important prey in the diet of Verreaux’s eagle (Aquila verreauxit). Because males are forced to disperse when mature, oneto two-year-old males are particularly at risk of predation. Juveniles constituted 11-33% of Procavia remains in Verreaux's eagle nests in the Western Cape, and 18% of remains in the Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe. Rock Hyraxes form a main component of the diet of crowned hawk-eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus). Other predators include martial (Polemaetus bellicosus) and tawny eagles (Aquila rapax), Leopards (Panthera pardus) particularly on Mount Kenya, Lions (Panthera leo), Caracals (Caracal caracal), jackals (Canis spp), Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and snakes. There is an extensive literature on the variety of external parasites—ticks, biting and sucking lice, mites, and fleas— that have been collected from Rock Hyraxes. In South Africa only ten of some 10,000 ticks recovered belonged to species that could infest domestic livestock. Dust-bathing probably helps keep parasite burdens relatively low. Rock Hyraxes harbor a number of internal parasites, including nematodes and cestodes, which could play a role in hyrax mortality in some areas. In Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa, female Rock Hyraxes had the highest densities ofticks and biting lice in the summer. The difference between the sexes was related to the Rock Hyrax’s social structure. Females are more social than males making them vulnerable to increased infestation rates. Females also tend to be in worse physiological condition during the summer. No significant seasonal differences were noted in endoparasite densities. In the Serengeti, the sarcoptic mite, which causes mange, is an important cause of mortality for Rock Hyraxes, and females with symptoms of mange have been seen on Mount Kenya. In Kenya and Ethiopia, Rock Hyraxes might be an important reservoir for the parasitic diseases Leishmaniasis and Trypanosomiasis, as they have been reported to carry this parasite. Zoos have documented herpes virus infections in captive Rock Hyraxes.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The Rock Hyrax diet includes a variety of grasses, forbs, and shrubs, and they favor new shoots, buds, fruits, and berries. In the Serengeti, Rock Hyraxes were observed feeding on 79 plant species. The animals have a high seasonal adaptability. In the wet season they showed a preference for grasses (78%), but in the dry season when grasses became parched and poor in quality they browsed extensively (57%), more or less in proportion to the foliage density of each vegetation class. They were observed to feed on 24 grass species, including Panicum maximum, Pennisetum mezianum, and Themeda triandra; and on dicotyledonous plants such as Cordial ovalis, Maerua trphylla, Hoslundia opposita, Iboza sp., Hibiscus lunarifolius, Ficus ingens, Solanum incanum, Grewia fallax, and Acacia tortilis. In southern Africa, Rock Hyraxes exhibited similar seasonal preferences. In Namibia, a study of diet composition from two areas found that grasses were eaten in significant quantities only at the end of the hot-dry season and at the beginning of the wet season. Some 35 grass species were consumed, including Anthephora pubescens, Aristida congesta, Cynodon dactylon, Enneapogon scaber, E. brachystachyus, Eragrostis trichophora, Stipagrostis hirtigluma, and S. uniplumis. The important dicotyledonous plants in the diet were Acacia mellifera, and Ziziphus mucronata. Although they fed on a wide variety of plant species, ten species constituted more than 80% oftheir dietary biomass: Acacia karroo, Olea europaea, Felicia filifolia, Grewia occidentalis, Cussonia paniculata, Maytenus heterophylla, Pentzia spp., Clematis brachiata, Lycium oxycarpum, and Diospyros lycoides. Leaves of trees and shrubs formed the major portion of the diet; grazing largely depended on the seasonal availability of grasses. Examination of C":C'* ratios of carbonate and collagen fractions of bone and microwear patterns of the molariform teeth confirm that Rock Hyraxes switch between grazing and browsing at different times of the year. Rock Hyraxes in Kenya were observed feeding on a poisonous plant, Phytolacca dodecandra, and they are known to eat toxic Lobelia spp. However, there are a number of plant species that they avoid, such as Anthoxanthum nivale, Sedum ruwenzoriense, and Carduus keniensis. Most feeding occurs in groups. Rock Hyraxes often assume a fan-like orientation, which may serve to avoid conflict or to spot predators. Often a few individuals act as sentinels, as feeding away from their refuges makes the group vulnerable to attack by predators. Group feeding is intensive, usually only lasting about 20 minutes. Rock Hyraxes usually do not spend more than two hours per day feeding. Their disproportionally large jaws may be an adaptation that enables intensive feeding. In the Karoo, South Africa, the average daily distance travelled during group feeding ranged from 169 m to 572 m, but Rock Hyraxes seldom feed more than 15-20 m away from shelter. Feeding in groups, with sentinels,lets the hyraxes feed farther away from their crevices. Casual feeding by single individuals occurs more sporadically and at any time of the day, usually only a short distance from the protection of crevices.</p> <p>Breeding. There is a single breeding season per year, and for both males and females, this represents a very short period of sexual activity. In South Africa male sexual activity is from February to May with a peak in April; testes mass increases dramatically during this time, with a more than tenfold difference between active and quiescent males. Females have a mean estrous cycle length of 13 days, but can cycle several times over a seven-week period. Gestation is 212-240 days, which is exceptionally long for such a small mammal. It may represent a primitive characteristic, given the much larger body sizes of some of the ancestral hyrax species, or it may reflect the adaptive advantages of producing precocial young. Within a family group, the pregnant femalesall give birth within a period of about three weeks;this birth synchrony appears to be a mechanism to avert predation by predators such as eagles. Some authors have suggested that parturition may be linked to rainfall or photoperiod. For example, in most areas in South Africa the breeding season is in late summer, with a peak in April, but there is a shift from earlier conception in the south-west (January—May) to later in the north-east (May-July). This results in a shift in births from the end of August in the south-west to the end of March in the north-east. In the Serengeti, births were recorded from March to May; births in Israel occurred in April, supporting photoperiod as one of the proximate causes. Timing of the breeding season reflects the adaptation to more favorable temperatures for the newborn young. In arid areas of north-western South Africa, conception is from September to November and parturition from May to July. The number of young per female varies between one and four (mean 2-4) for the Serengeti; in southern Africa, a female with six embryos was collected. Mean litter sizes recorded include: 3-3 in the Western Cape; 2-7 in the Eastern Cape; and 2: 37 in Zimbabwe. Some authors suggested an increase in littersize with latitude. Others demonstrated a relationship between litter size and female age. First breeders have only 1-2 young. Females between two and eight years produce the largest litters, followed by a decline in older females. Nutritional conditions probably affect both litter size and age at first breeding. The young are fully developed at birth, fully haired and with eyes open. They are capable of agile movement within a few hours and can ingest solid food within a few weeks. Birth weight varies to some degree depending on the number in the litter (mean 195 g). The average litter weight (581 g) is high relative to female body weight. Suckling young assume a strict teat order. Weaning occurs at 1-5 months. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at about 16-17 months. However, there is a report that some females breed at five months and males reach sexual maturity at 28-29 months in southern Africa. These findings suggest a difference between physiological and behavioral sexual maturity in males; the dominant male effectively prevents mating by sexually mature young males. The sex ratio is equal at birth and until two years of age, after which females sometimes tend to outnumber males. A high level ofjuvenile mortality appears to be an important factor controlling Rock Hyraxes population dynamics. At sexual maturity, females usually join the adult female group. Males disperse before they reach 30 months. Adult femaleslive significantly longer than adult males and may reach an age of over ten years; in captivity, animals have lived more than 14 years. Juvenile male dispersal appears to play a major role in the female-biased adult sex ratio. However, preliminary results of microsatellite DNA analysis of Rock Hyrax in the Serengeti show no sex bias and reveal extremely low levels of genetic variation within and between neighboring colonies. In South Africa, patterns of geographic variation of maternally inherited mtDNA suggest that there are high levels of historical connectedness among localities. Additional molecular markers are needed to reconcile direct and indirect estimates of dispersal and gene flow. Although occupancy of some habitat islandsis stable over time, most regions are characterized by fluctuations in Rock Hyrax numbers and may experience local extinctions and recolonizations. This is seen in colonies occupying kopijes in the Serengeti, where low levels of allelic diversity and heterozygosity at eight locations suggest metapopulation dynamics and a population bottleneck. The Rock Hyrax’s dynamic population structure may be a consequence of the species’ unpredictable environment.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Rock Hyraxes are predominantly diurnal, though they occasionally are active on moonlit nights. It is not unusual to find them feeding at any time of the day, although there are peaks in mid-morning and mid-afternoon during warm periods. In winter, peak periods are later, or may become one extended period. More than 90% of the day is spent resting. Heaping, where several individuals are stacked on top of each other, is observed inside crevices and also outside during very cold conditions. Young can often be observed heaping with their mother. Although heaping can be observed inside crevices, huddling behavior is more common when groups are resting, especially early in the morning when the hyraxes first emerge from their crevices to sun themselves. During warmer times of day, solitary resting is seen. Hyrax social behavior is directly linked to daily temperature fluctuations and predation pressure. Different behavior patterns are expressed under varying environmental conditions. In southern Africa, in summer, Rock Hyraxes use rock crevices to avoid high temperatures. In the early morning, temperatures fall within the animals’ thermoneutral zones, which enables them to forage without the need to heat up. In winter, basking and huddling become essential for their survival.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Rock Hyraxes are gregarious,living in cohesive and stable family groups or colonies numbering as many as 80 individuals and consisting of 3-7 related adult females, one adult territorial male, dispersing males, subadult females, and juveniles of both sexes. Their numbers vary depending on the size of the kopje. Smaller kopjes or rocky outcrops support only a single colony, but larger kopjes may support several family groups, each occupying a traditional range. There are four classes of mature male: territorial, peripheral, and early and late dispersers. Territorial males are the most dominant, and repel all intruding males from an area largely encompassing the females’ core area. Their aggressive behavior towards other adult males escalates particularly in the mating season, when they monopolize all receptive females. On small kopjes, peripheral males are unable to settle, but on large kopjes they can occupy areas on the periphery ofthe territorial males’ territories. Males are solitary, and the highest ranking among them takes over a female group whenever a territorial male disappears; some studies have reported regular replacement of the dominant male. The females’ home ranges are not defended and may overlap. Rarely, an adult female from outside a group will be incorporated into the family group. The majority ofjuvenile males—the early dispersers—leave their birth sites at 16-24 months old, soon after reaching sexual maturity. The late dispersers leave a year later, but before they are 30 months old. Individual Rock Hyraxes have been observed to disperse over a distance of at least 2 km, although gene flow over distances greater than 10 km is unlikely. The farther a dispersing animal has to travel across open country, where there is little cover and few hiding places, the greater its chances of dying, either through predation or as a result ofits inability to cope with temperature stress. Observers in southern Africa reported shorter dispersal distances, indicating that the rocky habitat and the intervening vegetation between habitat islands strongly influence dispersal distance. Some of the resting time is spent self-grooming, using the lower incisors and the curved claw on the second digit. Grooming and dust bathing help rid Rock Hyraxes of ectoparasites. Rock Hyraxes urinate and defecate in latrines; over time, calcium carbonate in their urine crystallizes, forming deposits that whiten the cliff faces below latrines. Although Rock Hyraxes are gregarious, low levels of intraspecific aggression play an important role in maintaining colonial life. Visual communications include flaring the hairs surrounding the dorsal gland and appeasement behavior. Pilo-erection of the dorsal spot can either signal alarm (if the hairs are erected at a 45° angle) or threat (90°). These clear signals and stereotypical appeasement behavior limit serious aggressive encounters between individuals; agonistic behavior is mostly observed between males during the breeding season. Olfactory communication functions during reproduction and to establish mother—infant bonds. In southern Africa 21 vocal and four non-vocal sounds were recorded. The multitude of grunts, growls, snarls, spits, snorts, and squeals are used in a variety of contexts, but most commonly in showing aggression, appeasement, or defensive retreat. The alarm call in the form of a sharp bark is characteristic and differs from that of the Bush Hyrax and tree hyraxes. The alarm calls used by the sentinels, especially during group feeding, appear to be specific to the particular threat. A repetitious bark or song appears to function in transmitting territorial and sexual signals. Observations in Israel have shown that these songs provide accurate information regarding body weight, size and condition, social status, and hormonal state of the caller. Resident males and some bachelor males sing complex songs in individually distinct voices throughout most of the year, and also countersing with neighboring males. Singing males differ from the general adult male population in that their cortisol levels are higher than those of silent males. In singers, cortisol levels are associated with social rank, with dominants showing the highest levels. Singers are also on average older and more dominant, and they copulate more often than non-singers, suggesting that singing males may have higher reproductive success. Males are more vocal during the breeding season and also use dorsal gland secretions for signalling. These displays may be composed of components that are important in male-male competition, as well as mate choice. The dominantterritorial males monitor urine deposits routinely in search of receptive females. Most copulations are between the territorial males and adult females; peripheral males most often mate with subadult females. However, females mate with more than one territorial male and with peripheral males. Receptive females approach the dominant male and signal their readiness to mate by flaring their dorsal spot hairs, sniffing the male’s anogenital region, and presenting their hindquarters. Males initiate mating through a mating call, weaving head movements, and dorsal spot flaring. Copulations are brief. The young are born inside the rock crevices. Juveniles form nursery groups that often engage in social play; both juveniles and subadults have a much larger area of activity compared with the territorial and peripheral adults. In the Rock Hyrax, a strong correlation was found in females, but not in males, between androgens and cortisol. In most mammal species, the male shows this association. Female and male Rock Hyraxes have similar testosterone levels, and a significant relationship between social status and testosterone levels was observed. These levels differed only between lower-ranking males and females, with lower-ranking females showing higher levels. Dominant females had a significantly lower testosterone level than subordinate females. No association was detected between litter size and a female’s rank, testosterone, or cortisol levels.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Currently classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although this species is subject to some localized hunting, it is widely distributed on the African continent, is present in a number of protected areas across its range, and is generally not believed to be at any risk of extinction in the wild. However, more and better information on its status and distribution is desperately needed. Rock Hyrax populations in South Africa’s Cape Province were once listed as vermin due to their high numbers and grazing impact. However, about ten years ago populations in the KwaZulu-Natal province became locally extinct. Two recent reintroduction attempts of captive and wild groups in a reserve failed.</p> <p>Bibliography. Allen (1939), Ansell (1978), Ashford (1970), Bartholomew &amp; Rainy (1971), Barry (1994), Barry &amp; Barry (1996), Barry &amp; Mundy (1998, 2002), Bjornhag et al. (1994), Bloomer (2009), Boshoff, Palmer, Avery et al. (1991), Boshoff, Palmer, Vernon &amp; Avery (1994), Bothma (1966, 1971), Brown &amp; Downs (2005, 2006), Coe (1962), Coetzee (1966), Corbet (1978), Davies (1994), De Niro &amp; Epstein (1978), Fairall &amp; McNairn (1981), Fairall et al. (1986), Fischer (1992), Fourie, L.J. (1983), Fourie, L.J. et al. (1987), Fourie, L.J. &amp; Perrin (1985, 19874, 1987b, 1989), Fourie, P.B. (1977), Galeota et al. (2009), Gargett (1990), George &amp; Crowther (1981), Gerlach &amp; Hoeck (2001), Gombe (1983), Greenwood (1980), Hahn (1934), Hoeck (1975, 1978, 1982a, 1982c, 1989), Hoeck et al. (1982), Hoogstraal &amp; Wassef (1981), Horak &amp; Fourie (1986), Hungerford &amp; Snyder (1969), Kingdon (1971, 1997), Klein &amp; Cruz-Uribe (1996), Kolbe (1967), Koren &amp; Geffen (2009a, 2009b), Koren et al. (2008), Kotler et al. (1999), Kowalski &amp; Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), Ledger (1976), Lensing (1983), Louw et al. (1972), Meltzer (1967), Mendelssohn (1965), Millar (1971, 1972, 1973), Olds &amp; Shoshani (1982), Osborne (1987), Palmer &amp; Fairall (1988), Phipps (2001), Prinsloo, L.C. (2007), Prinsloo, P. (1993), Prinsloo, P. &amp; Robinson (1992), Rautenbach (1982), Roberts (1951), Roche (1972), Rubsamen et al. (1982), Sale (1965a, 1965b, 1966, 1969, 1970a, 1970b), Schlitter (1993), Shoshani. (2005), Skinner &amp; Chimimba (2005), Turner &amp; Watson (1965), Van der Merwe &amp; Skinner (1982), Walker et al. (1978), Wimberger et al. (2009), Yom-Tov (1993), Young &amp; Evans (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF8B2601F192FE30FB74FD40	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
9525582DFF8D2600F197FC2CFB1BF526.text	9525582DFF8D2600F197FC2CFB1BF526.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Heterohyrax brucei (J.E.Gray 1868)	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Bush Hyrax</p> <p>Heterohyrax brucei</p> <p>French: Daman de Bruce / German: Buschschliefer / Spanish: Daman de arbustos</p> <p>Other common names: Yellow-spotted Hyrax</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hyrax brucei: Gray, 1868,</p> <p>Ethiopia (= Abyssinia).</p> <p>Various names have been applied to the Bush Hyrax including Dendrohyrax blainvillii, Heterohyrax blainvillii, Hyrax syriacus and even Procavia brucei. Many different subspecies have been described from Africa, and two forms, antineae and chapini, have been considered distinct species. However, H. antineae, reported for the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria is incorrect, as there only the Rock Hyrax (P. capensis) occurs. H. chapini from Matadi in east-central DR Congo, supposedly characterized by the presence of only two pairs of inguinal teats, is included here as a subspecies of the Bush Hyrax. Although no consensus exists on whether all of these subspecies are conspecific, sequences of the mtDNA cytochrome b gene indicate that at least subspecies hindei in the central portion of the range and subspecies ruddi and grant: from Zimbabwe and South Africa are highly distinct and may represent cryptic species. Further genetic studies over the whole range are necessary to determine the taxonomy of the Bush Hyrax. The chromosome number is 2n = 54. The karyotype is marked by 20 acrocentric, two subtelocentric, two submetacentric, and two metacentric autosomal pairs. The X chromosome is the largest submetacentric and the Y is a very small acrocentric. Substantial geographic variation in coat color has been recorded from across the range of this species, and has led to a proliferation of described forms. No fewer than 34 synonyms are known, many of which have been considered subspecies by some authors. Twenty-four subspecies presently recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>H.b.bruceiGray,1868—Ethiopia.</p> <p>H.b.albipesHollister,1922—Kenya.</p> <p>H.b.bakeriGray,1874—Uganda.</p> <p>H.b.bocageiGray,1869—Angola.</p> <p>H.b.chapiniHatt,1933—DRCongo.</p> <p>H.b.dieseneriBrauer,1917—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.fromm:Brauer,1913—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.grantiWroughton,1910—SouthAfrica.</p> <p>H.b.hindeiWroughton,1910—Kenya.</p> <p>H.b.hoogstraaliSetzer,1956—Sudan.</p> <p>H.b.kemp:Thomas,1910—Kenya.</p> <p>H.b.lademanniBrauer,1917—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.manningiWroughton,1910—Malawi.</p> <p>H.b.mossambicusPeters,1870—Mozambique.</p> <p>H.b.muenzneriBrauer,1913—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.princepsThomas,1910—Ethiopia.</p> <p>H.b.prittwitziBrauer,1917—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.pumilusThomas,1910—Somaliland.</p> <p>H.b.rudd:Wroughton,1910—Mozambique.</p> <p>H.b.rudolfiThomas,1910—Ethiopia.</p> <p>H.b.somalicusThomas,1892—Somaliland.</p> <p>H.b.ssongeaeBrauer,1917—Tanzania.</p> <p>H.b.thomasiNeumann,1901—Sudan.</p> <p>H. b. victorianjansae Brauer, 1917 — Tanzania.</p> <p>Endemic to Africa from NE Sudan throughout the Horn of Africa, south to Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces in South Africa, and also isolated populations in Angola. Determining the limits of subspecific distribution is not possible for the moment, but the subspecies and the countries bearing their type localities are included above.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 32-56 cm; weight 1.3-3. 6 kg. Small to medium-sized, with short legs, rudimentary tail, round ears, and rabbit-like appearance. Males and females are, on average, of similar size, although females are sometimes larger than males. Lateral and dorsal color varies from gray to dark reddish-brown. Some individuals in isolated populations can be white-spotted. Usually a small, linear, creamy to yellow spot in the mid-line of the back surrounds the dorsal gland, but in some subspecies it may be lacking. Ventral color is white or creamy, in distinct contrast to the sides, back, head, and rump. Eyebrows are strikingly white to creamy and conspicuous at a distance. Vibrissae (up to 90 mm long on the snout) are evident on the snout, above the eyes, under the chin, along the back and sides, on the abdomen, and on foreand hindlimbs. These hairs provide tactile feedback to the animals when they are in the dark holes and crevices where they hide and rest. The ears are more prominent than in other hyraxes, the eyes bulge, and the head is flat dorsally. Guard hairs are blacktipped, and up to 30 mm long. The underhairs are brown or gray at the base. The anal-preputial mean distance in males is 6:5.8-2 cm, two or three times that of other genera. Anatomy of the penis is complex; it is round in cross section, with an appendage at the tip, and measures greater than 6 cm when fully erect. Femalestypically have one pair of pectoral and two pairs of inguinal mammae, though in some individuals the pectoral pair is absent. A dorsal gland lies beneath a raised patch of skin approximately 1-5 cm long. In adults the gland is surrounded by erectile hairs. The lobules in the glands of mature, sexually active adults are made up of 25-40 alveoli of secreting epithelium surrounding a lumen. The gland is odiferous and may function in mating and recognition of the mother by young. During courtship the male erects the hairs of the dorsal spot, exposing the dorsal gland. Hair erection of the dorsal spot also functions as an alarm or threat signal to hyraxes and other nearby animals. Bush Hyraxes have a single pair of tusk-like upper incisors. These are ridged or triangular in cross section in males; the faces of these incisors are rounded in females. A gap (diastema) 10-16 mm long separates the incisors from the premolars in adults. Premolars and molars are brachydont (short crowns and relatively long roots) adapted for a herbivorous diet. The length of the upper premolar toothrow, P'~* is just less than or equal to that of the upper molar toothrow, M'-*. As with all hyraxes, the digits have flat, hoof-like nails, except for the inner toe of the hindfoot, which has a long, curved claw for grooming; in addition, the four lower incisors are comb-like for grooming the fur. The soles have thick, rubbery pads with numerous skin glands that increase the grip for climbing. Bush Hyraxes are agile in climbing and jumping among branches. The weight-specific metabolic rate is low, with a thermo neutral zone of 24-35°C. Body temperature typically ranges from 35°C to 37°C, but fluctuates up to 7°C with air temperature. At air temperatures above 25°C body temperature is maintained by evaporative water loss from the nostrils, soles of the feet, panting, salivating, and grooming. Wateris conserved by low urine and fecal volume and highly concentrated urine that, together with feces, forms a dark, crystalline residue called hyraceum at communal latrines. Most water is obtained from browsing material; free water is seldom consumed, because of low metabolic rate, low urine volume, and thermallability. Behavioral thermoregulation is achieved by early morning and late afternoon basking on the surface and retreating to rock crevices and shaded areas in midday to avoid heat and dehydration. Individuals conserve heat by huddling and stacking.</p> <p>Habitat. Restricted to rocky outcrops (kopjes) and piles of large boulders with openings at least 11 cm in height and with 1 m * of floor space. Rock crevices provide a constant, moderate temperature (17-25°C) and humidity (32-40%) and protection from fire. Bush Hyraxes are sometimes found living in the holes offig trees near rivers. In East Africa, they live at elevations up to 3800 m. Bush Hyraxes are frequently found in the company of Rock Hyraxes, sometimes even inhabiting the same rock crevices. This heterospecific association varies seasonally in Zimbabwe, but is especially evident during synchronous parturition in March. They are often conspicuous and common in appropriate habitat. Densities in Matobo National Park in Zimbabwe ranged from 0-51 ind/ha to 1:92 ind/ha. In the Serengeti, densities reached 75 ind/ha in kopjes where only Bush Hyraxes were found and 28 ind/ha where they were sympatric with Rock Hyraxes. Rainfall, through its effect on fecundity, appears to be the primary factor responsible for annual fluctuations in abundance. The principal predator is Verreaux’s eagle (Aquila verreauxii); Bush Hyraxes and Rock Hyraxes make up more than 90% of this eagle’s diet. In Zimbabwe, Verreaux’s eagles selected adults disproportionately. Other predators include large snakes, Leopards (Panthera pardus), martial eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus), and other raptors. Bush Hyraxes are susceptible to viral pneumonia and tuberculosis. The sarcoptic mite that causes mange can heavily reduce colonies. Individuals can harbor the flagellate Leishmania, and nematode Crossophorus collarus. Ectoparasites collected from live-captured individuals in Zimbabwe included ixodid ticks (Rhipicephalus distinctus and Haemaphysalis leachit), fleas (Procaviopsylla), lice (Prolignognathus), and ear mites (Acomatacarus). Individuals often dust-bathe to remove ectoparasites.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Bush Hyraxes are obligate browsers, spending more than 80% of their foraging time browsing on twigs and bark of woody species and leaves, buds, flowers, and fruits of trees, bushes, and forbs; they rarely consume grass. The feeding preference for a particular species is greatly influenced by the optimal location of the plant, on the one hand, and its stage of development, on the other; young leaves, flowers, and fruit are much relished. Preferred plant species are regularly and systematically cropped by members of a family group until very little edible material is left. The animals then move to another part of the home range and continue browsing there from preferred bushes and trees. While the members of the group are feeding, the territorial male will usually stand guard on a high rock or tree branch and be the first to call in a case of danger. In the Serengeti, Bush Hyraxes were observed feeding on 64 plant species. The most commonly foraged plants were Acacia tortilis, Allophylus rubifolius, Cordia ovalis, Grewia fallax, Hibiscus lunarifolius, Ficus glumosa, F. ingens, Iboza sp., and Maerua triphylla. In Zimbabwe the most frequently foraged taxa were Combretum molle, Elephantorrhiza goetzei, Flueggia virosa, Strynchos usambarensis, Kirkia acuminata, Croton gratissimus, Mundulea sericea, Rhus leptodictya, and Commiphora marlothii.</p> <p>Breeding. Females come into estrus once or twice per year for up to three days, perhaps repeatedly over a four-week period. Estrus in females in a family group is synchronized. Gestation lasts 26-30 weeks. In the Serengeti, two distinct birth seasons, after the long and short rains, were observed. Birth pulses occur in Kenya from February to March,just before the rains, and in Zimbabwe in March, two months after peak rainfall. Litter size averages 1-6 in Tanzania, 1-7 in Kenya, and 2-1 in Zimbabwe. Females may bear young every other year. Young are precocious at birth and weigh 220-230 g. They nurse for 1-5 months and reach sexual maturity at 16-17 months of age. Recorded life span in the wild is more than eleven years in females, similar to records for captivity. Sex ratios ranged from 1:6 to 3:2 females—males in Serengeti. However, in Zimbabwe sex ratios of captured individuals and those that were prey to Verreaux’s eagles did not differ from 1:1. Density of this population was estimated at 0-5-1-1 ind/ ha (1-2-2-6 ind/ha of kopje) overa five-year period. This population comprised 19-4— 27-5% juveniles, 7-2-13-1% subadults, and 62-9-73-7% adults. Juvenile mortality was estimated at 52:4-61-3%.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Bush Hyraxes are diurnal, with most feeding occurring between 07:30 and 11:00 h and 15:30 and 18:00 h. Individuals may feed alone or in a group. Groups may feed up to 50 m from the center of the colony, although casual feeding rarely occurs more than 20 m from the den site. Feeding bouts average 20 minutes and last no longer than 35 minutes. Individuals can climb vertical trunks of trees and balance on thin branches to strip the vegetation of leaves.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Bush Hyraxes are gregarious, with group sizes reaching 34 individuals. The social unit is a polygynous harem, with a territorial adult male, up to 17 adult females, and juveniles. Territorial males threaten other males by movements or changes in posture (raising head and shoulders), showing large incisors, grinding molars, growling, snapping, chasing, biting, and erecting hairs around the dorsal gland. Appeasement is communicated with the hair and body flat and rump presented. Latrines, located near sleeping quarters, are visible because of white stains resulting from deposits of urine rich in calcium carbonate. Bush Hyraxes have a highly structured repertoire of calls indicating predator detection, contact, threat, and distress; some of these calls are recognized by Rock Hyraxes and Klipspringers (Oreotragus spp.). Loud territorial calls or songs are frequent during the mating season; the territorial call of adult males is shrill and long, lasting about 1-5 seconds, and given repeatedly for up to five minutes. Territorial males copulate more often than peripheral males and mate preferentially with females older than 28 months of age. Peripheral males exhibit a dominance hierarchy and mate more often with young females. The male emits a shrill cry as he approaches to mate, and the female erects her dorsal spot hairs. The male sniffs the female’s vulva,rests his chin on her rump, and then slides onto her back as he makes thrusting movements followed by intromission in 3-5 minutes. A second copulation may occur in 1-3 hours. Mothers suckle only their own young and the young maintain a strict teat order. Young play with conspecifics, and sometimes with young Rock Hyraxes at heterospecific nurseries, by nipping, biting, climbing, pushing, fighting, chasing, and mounting. Young in nurseries are attended by their own mothers, mothers of other young, non-maternal conspecifics, or even female Rock Hyraxes. Femalesjoin the adult female group at sexual maturity (approximately 16 months of age), and male offspring disperse at 12-30 months of age. However, migration of females also has been recorded in the Serengeti. Female migrations prevent inbreeding and are mainly responsible for long-distance gene transfer between kopjes.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Currently classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red Lust. The Bush Hyrax is readily snared. In Zimbabwe and in communal areas and commercial farmlands and unprotected lands elsewhere in southern Africa, they are used to make karosses (blankets), which has resulted in dramatic declines in local population densities. However, overall the species is widespread, and present in several well-managed protected areas across its range.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ashford (1970), Ashford et al. (1973), Aumann &amp; Chiweshe (1995), Barry (1994), Barry &amp; Barry (1996), Barry &amp; Mundy (1998, 2002), Barry &amp; Shoshani (2000), Bartholomew &amp; Rainy (1971), Bloomer (2009), Bothma (1966, 1971), Caro &amp; Alawi (1985), Coetzee (1966), Crawford-Cabral &amp; Verissimo (2005), De Niro &amp; Epstein (1978), Dobson (1876), Eley (1994), Ellerman et al. (1953), Estes (1991), Fischer (1992), Gargett (1990), Gargett et al. (1995), Gerlach &amp; Hoeck (2001), Glover &amp; Sale (1968), Gray (1868), Grobler &amp; Wilson (1972), Hahn (1934), Hatt (1936), Hoeck (1975, 1977a, 1977b, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1989), Hoeck et al. (1982), Hoffmann et al. (2008), Kingdon (1971, 1997), Leon (1980), Maloiy &amp; Eley (1992), Meesteret al. (1986), Meyer (1978), Prinsloo &amp; Robinson (1992), Roberts (1951), Roche (1962, 1972), Sale (1965a, 1965b, 1966, 1969, 1970a, 1970b), Schlitter (1993), Skinner &amp; Chimimba (2005), Smith (1977), Sokolov &amp; Sale (1981), Thomas (1892), Turner &amp; Watson (1965), Walker et al. (1978), Weigl (2005), Wilson (1969).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF8D2600F197FC2CFB1BF526	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
9525582DFF8C2603F1D0F44EFE45FDA8.text	9525582DFF8C2603F1D0F44EFE45FDA8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dendrohyrax dorsalis (Fraser 1855)	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Western Tree Hyrax</p> <p>Dendrohyrax dorsalis</p> <p>French: Daman de Beecroft / German: Westlicher Baumschliefer / Spanish: Daman arboricola occidental</p> <p>Other common names: Beecroft's Tree Hyrax</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hyrax dorsalis Fraser, 1855,</p> <p>Equatorial Guinea, Bioko.</p> <p>Tree hyraxes were split into the genus Dendrohyrax by Gray in 1868, who also first used D. dorsalis for the species. Three species of tree hyrax (D. dorsalis, D. arboreus, and D. validus) are recognized, but species level classification is most likely underestimated, and there may be more species than currently accepted. Differences in the calls of each subspecies suggest that populations divide into three distinct dialects, in Ivory Coast, Cameroon and Bioko, and Gabon. Based on the taxonomy of other forest mammals, which show species divisions at the Dahomey Gap and the Eastern Highlands, genetically distinct subspecies should be distinguishable. Six subspecies are currently described. This will be clarified by further research on their genetics, anatomy, behavior and bioacoustics.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>D.d.dorsalisFraser,1855—BiokoI.</p> <p>D.d.eminiThomas,1887—N&amp;EDRCongo.</p> <p>D.d.latratorThomas,1910—CDRCongo.</p> <p>D.d.marmotaThomas,1901—forestislandsofUganda.</p> <p>D.d.nigricansPeters,1879—NigeriatorightbankofCongoRiver.</p> <p>D. d. sylvestris Temminck, 1853 — W Africa.</p> <p>The distribution information for this species is still incomplete; the Western Tree Hyrax is also present in SW Sudan and S Central African Republic, but the subspecific identity of these populationsstill requires confirmation.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body length 44-57 cm; weight 1.8-4. 5 kg. Small stocky animal, body shaped like a large guinea-pig. The Western Tree Hyrax’s shorter, coarser dark-brown to black coat hairs, longer dorsal patch, naked rostrum, and white spot beneath the chin are the best characteristics for distinguishing D. dorsalis from other members of the genus. An obvious, large yellowish-white dorsal spot conceals a naked dorsal scent gland. The ears are small and rounded and may be tipped with white. The tail does not extend past end of body and there is one pair of inguinal mammary glands. Molar teeth have short crowns relative to longer root (brachydont dentition). Lower incisors are flattened and serrated and function as a grooming comb; upper incisors are caniniform and triangular in cross-section. Dental formula I 1/2, C0/0, P 4/4, M 3/3 (x2) = 34. Very adept climbers. Can ascend a smooth tree trunk up to 50 cm in diameter. Feet are flexible and can be easily supinated. Forefoot has four digits; hindfoot has three; nails rounded and hoof-like with the exception of a claw-like nail on the inner toe of the hindfoot. Footpads are black, ridged and flexible. Long sensory hairs (vibrissae) are scattered throughout the pelage. Other notable features, characteristic of the genus in general, bicornuate uterus; the testes remain in the abdominal cavity; sweat glands and gall bladder absent; os penis present.</p> <p>Habitat. Usually found in lowland forests and also in degraded forest fragments, to an elevation of around 1500 m, but known from elevations up to 3500 m in Central Africa. Found in moist forests, moist savannas, and montane habitats. At higher elevations they can live amongst rock formations and are partly diurnal. Individuals maintain territories, but population densities and structure poorly known. Observations based on nocturnal calling records in Tai Forest National Park, Ivory Coast yield an estimate of 1-2 ind/km?. Main predators are African crowned hawk-eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), Leopards (Panthera pardus), and possibly also larger eagle-owls (Bubo sp.) or hawk-eagles (Hieraaetus sp.). Western Tree Hyraxes do not form a large portion of the diet of Leopards and crowned hawk-eagles in Tai Forest National Park. Common Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have been observed capturing and killing adult D. dorsalis, but not seen eating them. West African specimens have been found to have nematode parasites (Crossophorus collaris, Libyostrongylus alberti, Hoplodontophorus flagellum, Theileriana brachylaima).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Tree hyraxes are herbivorous, consuming mostly leaves, twigs,fruit, and bark. Most of their activity occurs in the canopy, but they descend to the ground to forage and move between trees. Anecdotal evidence suggests they are attracted to alcoholic sources, and can be trapped using alcohol, perhaps implying fermented fruits are a dietary item.</p> <p>Breeding. Gestation period of 28-32 weeks. The one to two young are very precocious, fully furred, and fairly large (180-380 g). Litter size is smaller in tree hyraxes than other hyrax genera. Both mating and birth peaks tend to coincide with the dry season, but offspring may be born throughout the year. Females excrete cinnamon-smelling oil from their dorsal gland prior to mating. Young reach sexual maturity around 16 months. Life span is poorly known, although captive animals have been reported to live up to twelve years. Because of long gestation and maturation times, predation rates must be fairly low.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Largely inactive, but emerge regularly at dusk and dawn to feed.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Primarily solitary, but groups of two and three can be found (likely mother and subadult young). Tree hyraxes have small home ranges, with each defended male territory overlapping those of several smaller female ranges. Individuals in captivity rubbed dorsal glands, probably used in the wild to mark territory boundaries and for intraspecific identification. Individuals use middens, defecating repeatedly at the bases of trees. Captive animals often are aggressive to other individuals, charging and snapping. When disturbed, animals exhibited pilo-erection of the hairs surrounding the dorsal gland, which exuded odoriferous secretions. As with other tree hyraxes, Western Tree Hyraxes produce very loud, distinct calls. Long cries are repeated between 22 and 42 times at gradually increasing amplitude and decreasing intervals, reaching a loud climactic crescendo at end. In captivity, the beginning of each call was a sequence of very faint, almost inaudible units. Both males and females call, the latter more often when solitary. Western Tree Hyraxes call throughout the night, but with marked peaks in late evening (20:00-22:00 h) and early morning (04:00-05:00 h), corresponding to activity patterns. Also heard to call during the day, normally after being disturbed. There is some seasonal variation in calling frequency. Geographical variation in call structure is discernable, even between fairly close populations. Between different populations the call structure varies so much that the characterization of subspecies becomes possible.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. However, Western Tree Hyraxes are probably sensitive to habitat degradation as they are confined to primary forests. They are killed for their fur and for food. According to the African Mammals Database, only about 6% oftheir geographical range is protected.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bothma (1971), Fischer (1992), Hahn (1934), Jones (1978), Kingdon (1971, 1997), Rahm (1957, 1969), Rahm &amp; Christiansen (1963).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF8C2603F1D0F44EFE45FDA8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
9525582DFF8F2603F16EFD09F94AFCF0.text	9525582DFF8F2603F16EFD09F94AFCF0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dendrohyrax arboreus (A. Smith 1827)	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Southern Tree Hyrax</p> <p>Dendrohyrax arboreus</p> <p>French: Daman des arbres / German: Sidlicher Baumschliefer / Spanish: Damanarboricola meridional</p> <p>Other common names: Tree Dassie</p> <p>Taxonomy. Hyrax arboreus A. Smith, 1827,</p> <p>South Africa, Western Cape Prov. forests of Cape of Good Hope.</p> <p>Seven subspecies have been described, but taxonomic boundaries are poorly defined.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>D.a.arboreusA.Smith,1827—SouthAfrica(EasternCape&amp;KwaZulu-Natalprovinces).</p> <p>D.a.adolfifriedericiBrauer,1913—EDRCongo,SWUganda,Rwanda,andBurundi.</p> <p>D. a. bettoni Thomas &amp;Schwann, 1904 — Kenya.</p> <p>D. a. braueri Hahn, 1933 - NE Amzola. S DR Gonzo and Zambia.</p> <p>D.a. crawshayi Thomas, 1900 - C Kenya.</p> <p>D. a. ruwenzorii Neumann, 1902 - NE DR Congo (Ruwenzori Mts).</p> <p>D. a. stuhlmanni Matschie, 1892 - SW KenyaîTanzania, SE DR VCongo, Malawi, and Mozambique.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 32-60 cm; weight 1.7-4. 5 kg. Males and females are approximately the same size. General coloration dark brown to gray, but very variable; may appear grizzled due to buff band below black tips of guard hairs. Individuals from high rainfall areas have darker pelage. Head often darker than rest of body and ventral pelage pale, creamy, or white. Dark yellow 23-30 mm long erectile hairs in the middle of back surrounding the dorsal gland. Four digits on forefeet, three on hindfeet, with nails rather than claws, inner digit on hindfoot curved for grooming. Soles of feet are padded pink, but in ruwenzorii black in color. Cheek teeth hypsodont. Number of mammae variable. Subspecies ruwenzorii and stuhlmanni have four mammae, two front and two back. In males the anus-preputial opening distance is 1-7 cm. The penisis short, simply built, and slightly curved. Longevity over ten years.</p> <p>Habitat. Afro-montane forest from sea level to subalpine areas up to about 4500 m. In the Ruwenzori they also live among rock boulders. In central Mozambique Southern Tree Hyraxes occur in lowland evergreen forests as well as in the evergreen forests bordering the Save River. In East Africa they occur in drier Acacia woodland and evergreen riverine forests, mainly in fig trees. In southern and eastern Africa, Southern Tree Hyraxes are dependent on cavities oftrees, epiphytes, or dense matted forest vegetation for shelter. In fragmented afro-montane forest in South Africa they persist as a dynamic mainland-island metapopulation. They have the ability to live in small forest patches, under moderate disturbance, and in a significant human-altered matrix. Therefore, all forest patches should be conserved and human disturbance reduced. Known predators include hawk-eagles (Hieraeutus sp.), crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), Leopards (Panthera pardus), Golden Cats (Profelis aurata), genets (Genetta spp.), Servals (Leptailurus serval), Caracals (Caracal caracal), and larger owls and snakes. Tree hyraxes have a number of species of biting lice as parasites.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Predominantly herbivorous, browsing leaves, buds, twigs, and fruits from forbs and trees year-round. Important dietary species in East Africa include Podocarpus latifolius, Schefflera volkensii, Ilex mitis, andJuniperus procera, and in southern Africa P. falcatus, Schotia laitfolia, Cassine aethiopica, Euclea natalensis, and Eugenia capensis. In the Virunga Volcanoes, leaves of Hagenia abyssinica, Hypericum revolutum, Senecio maranguensis, Galium ruwenzoriense, and Pleoppeltis excavata formed the bulk of their diet. In the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania, they browse almost exclusively on Ficus natalensis and Acacia albida trees.</p> <p>Breeding. Reproductive biology unknown. Gestation period 220-240 days; 1-2 young per female.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Tree hyraxes are nocturnal, with activity peaks after sunset and in the early morning before sunrise.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Primarily solitary, but groups of two and three can be found (likely mother and subadult young). Occasionally seen as family groups, several females with single male. Population densities and social organization are poorly known. The calls start with several cracking sounds, which are followed by a loud scream, repeated several times. Several short cracking sounds follow immediately after each of the first few screams. Later in the sequence the scream occurs alone. Mostly males but also females produce these calls. Each animal call is so distinctive it allows individual recognition by the human observer.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Currently classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Rare and officially protected in South Africa. Several populations are probably endangered due to deforestation. Certain African tribes hunt tree hyraxes as a source of food, to collect skins, and as medicine. They are also important in the spiritual traditions of some tribes.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bothma (1966, 1971), Castely &amp; Kerley (1993), Coetzee (1966), Dobson (1876), Eley (1994), EIlerman et al. (1953), Estes (1991), Fischer (1992), Gaylard (1994), Gaylard &amp; Kerley (1997, 2001), Hahn (1934), Hoeck (1978c), Kingdon (1971, 1997), Meester et al. (1986), Meyer (1978), Milner (1994), Milner &amp; Harris (19993, 1999b), O'Donoghue (1963), Roberts (1951), Roche (1962, 1972), Rudnai (1984), Sale (1969), Schlitter (1993), Skinner &amp; Chimimba (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF8F2603F16EFD09F94AFCF0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
9525582DFF8F2603F466FCC1F5A1F391.text	9525582DFF8F2603F466FCC1F5A1F391.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Dendrohyrax validus True 1890	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Eastern Tree Hyrax</p> <p>Dendrohyrax validus</p> <p>French: Daman du Kilimanjaro / German: Ostlicher Baumschliefer / Spanish: Daman arboricola oriental</p> <p>Other common names: Tree Dassie</p> <p>Taxonomy. Dendrohyrax validus True, 1890,</p> <p>Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.</p> <p>Three subspecies have been described.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>D.v.validusTrue,1890—NTanzania(MtKilimanjaroandMtMeru).</p> <p>D.v.neumanniMatschie,1893—TanzaniaIs(Pemba,Zanzibar,Tumbatu,Wete,Fundu&amp;Mwana-mwana).</p> <p>D. v. terricola Mollison, 1905 — Eastern Arc Mountains from S Kenya (Taita Hills) to S Tanzania (Pare, Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa &amp; Rubeho Mts), also Kenya and Tanzania coast.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body length 32-60 cm; weight 1.7-3 kg. As with the other tree hyraxes, Eastern Tree Hyraxes are small, robust animals with bodies shaped like large guinea pigs. Males and females are approximately the same size. Pelage is long, dense, and soft. Color varies greatly. The dorsal pelage is cinnamon-brown darkening to dusky-brown or black, especially around the head. The dorsal spot is pale to dark yellow, with hairs 20-40 mm long. One pair of inguinal mammae. The crowns of the molars are short with long roots (brachydont dentition). In males the anus—preputial opening distance is 2-5 cm. The penis is short, simply built, and slightly curved. The calls of D. validus vary by locality, falling into three “call zones”: the offshore islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, southern mountains (Uluguru, Udzungwa, and Rubeho), and northern mountains (Taita Hills, Pare, and Usambara).</p> <p>Habitat. Evergreen forests up to about 3500 m. On the Kenya coast they live in the fossil reef area close to the shore.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Herbivorous, browse on leaves, buds, twigs, and fruits from forbs and trees year-round. Occasionally feed on the ground on herbs and soft vines. Light feeding may occur during the day, but most feeding occurs at dusk and just before dawn.</p> <p>Breeding. Little known on the reproductive biology. Gestation 220-240 days, 1-2 young per litter.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Tree hyraxes are nocturnal, with activity peaks shortly after sunset and before sunrise. Their loud whistling calls can be heard throughout the night, with peak periods just after dusk and before dawn. No significant differences were noted in calling frequency over an eight-month period from July to March. Predators include Leopards (Panthera pardus), genets (Genetta spp.), Palm Civets (Nandinia binotata), Servals (Leptailurus serval), African Civets (Civettictis civetta), crowned hawk-eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus), and African rock pythons (Python sebae).</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Primarily solitary. Individuals nest, forage, and travel alone but maintain contact via calls and scent marking. Population densities on Mount Kilimanjaro were 7-23 animals/ha. Like other tree hyrax species, Eastern Tree Hyraxes usually defecate and urinate in middens at the bases of trees. White stains from their urine, which is rich in calcium carbonate, can be seen on the walls of cave entrances in Kenya.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Eastern Tree Hyraxes are currently classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Some populations are threatened by severe forest destruction or fragmentation and by hunting. Eastern Tree Hyraxes are easily trapped using a snare set at the base of a tree. They may also be clubbed, speared, or run down by dogs after being smoked out or following the felling of a den, and can be extracted from holes using a stick or spear. Hunting was banned in Tanzania in 1973; howeverit still continues. They are trapped for their meat and pelts to make hyrax blankets, which can still be bought in Moshi and Arusha, Tanzania.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bothma (1971), Burgess etal. (2000), Estes (1991), Fischer (1992), Hahn (1934), Hoeck (1978c), Kingdon (1971, 1997), Kundaeli, (1976), Schlitter (1993), Seibt et al. (1977), Topp-Jorgensen &amp; Pedersen (2001).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/9525582DFF8F2603F466FCC1F5A1F391	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Procaviidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 41-47, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720677
