identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB.text	03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschidae (Gray 1821)	<div><p>Family MOSCHIDAE (MUSK-DEER)</p> <p>• Small, hornless ruminants with hindquarters considerably higher than forequarters, long, rabbit-like, upright ears, long limbs, small tail, and thick, grayish or brownish hairs, standing erect on upperparts of body; male with long, slender, curved upper canines, large glandular sac on belly, and glandulartail.</p> <p>• 70-100 cm.</p> <p>• Palearctic and Indo-Malayan Regions.</p> <p>• Forest and alpine scrub in mountains and hilly country.</p> <p>• 1 genus, 7 species, 13 taxa.</p> <p>• 6 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFBAF05CFDE7FD8F1F6DFAAB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.text	03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Siberian Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus moschiferus</p> <p>French: Porte-musc de Sibérie / German: Sibirien-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero siberiano</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Tatary towards China = Altai Mountains.</p> <p>Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M.m.moschiferusLinnaeus,1758—ERussia(Altairegion,NalongtheYenisei,reaching69°N,thendowntothemiddleflowoftheLena;E&amp;SEslopesoftheVerkhoyanskRange;StanovoyRange,butdoesnotreachtheSeaofOkhotskorthefloodzonesoftheAmur),EKazakhstan,Mongolia,andNChina(NENeiMongol&amp;NWHeilongjiang,formerlyalsoinNXinjiangbutsupposedlyextincttheresinceearly20"century).</p> <p>M.m.parvipesHollister,1911—RussianFarEast,KoreanPeninsula,andNEChina(SHeilongjiang,EJilin,ELiaoning,Hebei&amp;Shanxi).</p> <p>M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1929 — Sakhalin.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 65-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, shoulder height 56-61 cm; weight 7-17 kg. Skull length in the Siberian subspeciesis c¢. 14:5-15. 8 cm; in the other two subspecies rather smaller, 14-15 cm. The pelage is softer,less quilly, than in other species. Individual hairs on the upperparts are dark with a white subterminal band and/ortip, producing an overall color of dark grayish, usually with whitish spots where the white tips cluster together. Underside paler, grayish-brown. Neck brownish, head more grayish, and may be either paler or darker than body. Ears dark brown or black, paler at base. A pair of narrow creamy or white stripes (made up of white-tipped hairs) from chin down neck to chest. The pale spots are variably visible, but always prominent in young. In the skull, the snoutis long but does not form as much as half of the total skull length; the lacrimal bone is shorter than it is high; braincase is elongated; the orbits tubular. Diploid chromosome number is 58; some animals have dot-sized satellite chromosomes situated in the upper part of the fourth pair of autosomes. Deciduous canines in both sexes are replaced by permanent canines, prominent only in males, at six months. The limbs are more elongated than in most other species; the metatarsal is about 111% of the skull length, the metacarpal 84%. Relatively, however, the hindlimbs are greatly elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length (always more than 167 mm) being around 132% of the metacarpal (whose length is always more than 126 mm), and the forelimbs as a whole are 25-30% shorter than the hindlimbs. The metapodials are also very slender, the width of the distal head of the metacarpal being less than 14-5% ofits length, that of the metatarsal less than 12-5% of its length. Russian authors have reported that the musk of the Siberian Musk-deer contains no muscone, which on the face of it would seem to make it much less valuable for perfumes and for medicinal uses. The differences between the subspecies are in size and coloration. Subspecies parvipes and sachalinensis are considerably smaller and darker on average than is moschiferus, and most but not all specimens can be distinguished, though there is a doubt whether most parvipes and sachalinensis can really be differentiated from each other.</p> <p>Habitat. Siberian Musk-deer live in mountain taiga; in the Altai and Sayan ranges, they are found between 300 m and 1600 m, and farther north, in Yakutia and north-eastern Russia, they live in rhododendron shrub, in light coniferous forest, and in floodland poplar-willow forests. In the northernmost part of the range, Wolverines (Gulo gulo), Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and foxes (Vulpes spp.) are the main predators, in that order; in Yakutia, the Yellow-throated Marten (Mantesflavigula) tends to be the most important. They are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including mites and fleas, and in the Far East, 100% are infested with larvae of Cordylobia inexspectata (Calliphoridae), a fly related to blowflies, a single individual musk-deer having as many as 2000 larvae.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. In the northern part of the range, Siberian Musk-deer feed on lichens all year round, these forming 60-91% of the weight of stomach contents; in winter, they also eat sprigs of small bushes, conifer needles, moss, dry grass, and rhododendron leaves; in spring and summer, they eat vascular plants.</p> <p>Breeding. Body mass is lowest in June and at its maximum in autumn, when rutting begins. Testis volumeis at its maximum in the early rut (November-December), and the musk gland is at its maximum in November. The full rut takes place in December—January, less frequently February-March. Three-quarters of the females breed every year, the rest only once in two or three years or less. The pre-copulation phase, as judged by the male’s reaction to female urine marks, lasts 15-18 days; the true mating period lasts only 52-64 hours, and the phase of estrus when copulation occurs lastsjust 12-24 hours. Gestation is 182-194 days, with a mean of 187. During courtship, a male first leaves musk marks on the female’s home range, then gradually approaches, then pursues her. Before copulation, the male smells the female’s genitals and occasionally makes the flehmen gesture (corners of the mouth open, pulling back the midline of the upper lip to permit passage of olfactory molecules into the vomeronasal organ); most females rub the side of the neck of the male with their caudal area and look back. A series of copulations takes place, interspersed with resting or feeding. Most births (70%) occur in the first ten days ofJune. The newborns weigh 460-635 g. Meanlitter size overall is 1:7-1-8; i.e. there is a preponderance of twins. In different regions, the rate of multiple births seems slightly different: in East Sayan, twelve triplet, 50 twin, and 28 singleton births were recorded; in Yakutia,six twin and three singleton births. The sex ratio at birth in twins in the Altai region is 73-82% male; overall, however, sex ratios at birth are equal. Births occur during the day. Neonates stand 16-28 minutes after birth, walk after 28-47 minutes, and suckle after 11-92 minutes. They lie hidden for 12-15 days, and are on their own 80-90% of the time, the mother returning to feed them just once or twice a day for the first month, and after that only once a day. They begin to eat lichen and grass at 15-18 days. Lactation lasts on average four months, occasionally up to six months. The mother—young socialties last till the end of lactation. Juvenile mortality during first three or four months varies from 10-14% in the Far East to 17% in Transbaikalia. Males reach sexual maturity at 10-18 months, females at 8-9 months. Some females remain fertile until 7-12 years of age; in captivity, they remain fertile for longer, up to age 15-17. Mean life expectancy in nature is 5-7 years, which of course reflects the high infant and juvenile mortality, as adults in the wild may live to twelve years.</p> <p>Activity patterns. They are active, nervous animals; sudden high lookout jumps are made, especially by females. Most activity takes place at dusk and dawn. A musk-deer can travel 3-7 km during night foraging, usually returning to the same lair every morning. An individual’s home range will be between 200 ha and 300 ha in size, and muskdeer observe the boundaries quite strictly. In the second half of winter the extent of the home range is ratherless, and seasonal migrations,if they exist at all, are minimal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Like other musk-deer, males are territorial. Fights between territory owners involve striking with the forelegs and sometimes slashing with the canines. Apparently unlike other musk-deer, they live in pairs with the young of the year, although the female’s home range in and around the territory is not coterminous with the male’s. The territory is maintained by the male, who patrols it, marking the boundaries with caudal gland secretions and feces, and physically chasing away intruders. Sometimes the territory also contains satellite males up to two years old, who assist in maintaining the territory and may take over if the dominant male dies. Young males leave their natal territories in October to April (i.e. during orafter the rut), and young females from April to June before the adult female gives birth. Family groups form “metapopulations” in areas of relatively high population density separated from each other by low-density areas. Solitary individuals form 13-30% of the total. Not all of the home range is defended; the home ranges of males overlap by 3-6% in Altai, and in Far East by up to 15%; those of females, by as much as 17%. In winter, the overlap increases and can be as much as 40-70% of neighboring home ranges. The average population density is around 0-6 ind/km?, but this may increase to up to 4-8-5 ind/km?* when conditions are favorable.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. By the end of the 1990s, populations in Russia were estimated at about 70,000, having been reduced by 50% to 75% since 1989. In 1999 the Sakhalin population was estimated at about 600-650, and declining, the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000 -30,000, and that in the Russian Far East as perhaps as much as 150,000. Although apparently less endangered than the Chinese species, the Siberian Musk-deer is still in danger of extinction unless stringent measures are taken.</p> <p>Bibliography. Flerov (1952), MacKinnon (2008), Nyambayar et al. (2008), Prihodko (2003), Sokolov etal. (1987).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFB8F05EFFC0FE63137BF728	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.text	03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson 1839	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Alpine Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus chrysogaster</p> <p>French: Porte-musc alpin / German: Gelbbauch-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero dorado</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839,</p> <p>“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions,” probably from the Tibetan Plateau, north of the Himalayas.</p> <p>Two subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M.c.chrysogasterHodgson,1839—alpinezoneat2800-4000mofNIndia(includingSikkim),Nepal,andBhutan.</p> <p>M. c. sifanicus Büchner, 1891 — alpine zone at 3500-4800 m of C &amp; S China (S Ningxia, Qinghai, S Gansu, W Sichuan, SE Xizang &amp; NW Yunnan).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 85-90 cm, tail 4-6 cm, height at shoulder, 50-60 cm; weight 11-18 kg. One of the largest species of musk-deer. Skull length in subspecies sifanicus is 1516-5 cm and in the nominotypical subspecies 14:5-16 cm. Overall color striated reddish or yellowish-gray; paler on flanks; underside reddish-creamy-gray, as are the inner surfaces of the limbs and the midline of the throat, but there are no white stripes on the neck. There is an orange eye ring. Individual hairs are brown with a red-yellow subterminal band. Ears are pale brown, tipped with yellow, and gray inside. Throat with a single broad, ill-defined creamy longitudinal band. Legs paler than body on lower segments, grayish-yellow, somewhat darkened down front surfaces. Rump paler than back, yellowish, with a black patch on buttocks. Young spotted. A faint dorsal stripe. Hair bases long, milky gray or brown. Winter hairs 34-42 mm long on withers, 55-64 mm on rump. The face is greatly elongated, constituting more than half the skull length; the lachrymal length is much longer than its height. Limbs are elongated, but not as much as those of the Siberian species: metacarpal length 109-119 mm, metatarsal 128-148 mm. The metapodials are sturdier than those of the Siberian Musk-deer, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal is more than 15-5%, of the metatarsal more than 14-5% of their lengths. The hindlimbs are slightly less elongated compared to the forelimbs, the metatarsal length is 124-128% of that of the metacarpal. The metatarsal length is 90-95% of skull length, the metacarpal 72-77%.</p> <p>Habitat. Once found throughout the “dwarf bush zone” in suitable areas of the Tibetan Plateau, nowadays due to human disturbance the habitat is fragmented and populations are isolated on separate mountains. Chinese Alpine Musk-deer live in highelevation bush, where the mean annual temperature is around 3-7°C and often falls below freezing; they prefer shrubby habitats to meadows. They inhabit shaded slopes with better shelter and less disturbance, the steeper slopes at greater than 30°. The elevation of their habitat is typically 4000-4500 m, only sometimes going below 4000 m. Annual rainfall varies from about 200 mm to as much as 450 mm or more. Musk-deer population density varies from 3-9 ind/km? in the more arid habitats to 71-11 ind/km? where the rainfall is highest; density is lower where there is heavy snow cover. Densities in dwarf forest and shrub are highest, but more continuous dense shrub is avoided, and patchy shrub has the highest densities among habitat types. Where there are more competitors, such as Serow and Goral, and more grazing by domestic herds, and of course more poaching, densities are again lower.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet contains the leaves of 46 species (mostly shrubs and forbs), flowers of 30 species, shoots and stems of 16 species, and seeds ofsix species; the proportion of leaves and tender shoots is highest in spring and summer, of buds and flowers higher in late summer, and of the leaves, twigs, and seeds of forbs and shrubs higher later in the year.</p> <p>Breeding. In the Xinglong Mountain National Nature Reserve, east of Qinghai Lake, births occur from May to July, when rainfall and temperature are highest; the younger females (less than two years old) have their birth season more spread out than the more mature females. Compared to the wild, in captivity the birth season is longer and begins later. The twinning rate is lower than in the Siberian Musk-deer, only two in twelve births. The neonates weigh 700-750 g at three days old. Lactation lasts for two months; the young begin browsing at 20 days.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Very little is known about activity patterns, but they have been reported to sleep during the day in a form, which is made by scraping out a shallow depression in the ground, which just fits the body when the animalis crouching low.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social organization seems to be rather different from that of the Siberian Musk-deer. Males and females seem not to be associated in pairs, nor are there “satellite” males; instead the home ranges of the dominant males overlap those of females, but the other males occupy separate home ranges. Home range in summeris smaller than in autumn; the home ranges of males average 35-5 ha in July to September, and expand to 47-17 ha (i.e. by 63-4%) in October to early November, the rutting season; female ranges enlarge from 28-95 ha to 40-76 ha (a 40-8% increase).</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I, except Chinese populations which are listed in Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a probable population decline caused by overexploitation, shrinkage in distribution, and habitat destruction and degradation. Although data are lacking regarding recent population levels, the high levels of harvesting and habitat loss do not bode well. A poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 wild individuals in China in the 1960s and 1970s and no more than 100,000 within China in the 1990s.</p> <p>Bibliography. Grubb (1982), Liu Zhixiao &amp; Sheng Helin (2008), Liu Zhixiao et al. (2002), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Shi Zemei &amp; Jiang Yingwen (2005), Meng Xiuxiang, Yang Qisen, Feng Zuojian, Xia Lin et al. (2003), Yang Qisen et al. (1998), Zhang Hongmao &amp; Hu Jinchu (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFB8F05FFAD8F6E01A8BF607	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB.text	03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus leucogaster Hodgson 1839	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Himalayan Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus leucogaster</p> <p>French: Porte-musc de |I'Himalaya / German: Himalaya-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero himalayo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 1839,</p> <p>“Cis and Trans Hemelayan regions.” Probably from the Himalayan slopes of Nepal.</p> <p>The similarity between Himalayan (M. leucogaster) and Alpine (M. chrysogaster) Musk-deers has often led to them being confused and regarded as conspecific. At present, no subspecies are recognized, but there does appear to be geographical variation, or possibly the species should even be split into two or more distinct species.</p> <p>Distribution. Known from the southern slopes of Himalayas in N India (including Sikkim), Nepal, and Bhutan.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 86-100 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 13-18 kg. A large muskdeer; skull length is 15.3-16 cm. In the typical form ofthis species, from western Nepal, the upperparts are brownish-yellow, weaklystriated; the head gray-brown; the ears brown with grayish-white rims, and gray-white inside; some individuals have a faint grayish eye ring. The legs and rump are dark. Bases of the dorsal hairs are pure white. There is no neck-stripe; the throatis all dark. The interramal region is grayish-white, as is the underside, from chest to groin. Juveniles are clearly spotted. The facial skeleton is somewhat elongated; the lacrimal is longer than it is high, similar to the Alpine Musk-deer. There is a different looking form of this musk-deer, either a separate subspecies (or even a different species?) from Zhangmu (28° N, 87° E) in the forest zone of southern Tibet (Xizang): it is dark, without hair-banding, but the bases of the hairs are still white; the ears, limbs, and neck are all dark; the posterior aspect of the rump is orange-white; and the skull differs in having the nasal bones anteriorly expanded. In the Khumjung area in Nepal there is another type of musk-deer related to this species. In this population, known only from a few specimens collected on one of the Everest expeditions, the neck is somewhat paler; the throatis pale with a poorly marked stripe on either side; the chin and interramal region are creamy white; the ears are gray basally, black terminally; the buttocks are yellow-brown; the legs are mostly black; the chest is black, and the belly is more grayish. The skull also differs somewhat from M. leucogaster. There is a third unnamed form, related to this species, known from Kulu district and elsewhere in north Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, at 3000 m or more, and from neighboring regions of Nepal; this, which has been called the “pepper-and-salt” form, is brown or red-agouti, sometimes forming a “saddle.” There is often pale spotting; the throatis pale brown, with a pair of pale gray or whitish stripes along either side from the throat to the insides of the forelegs; the lower limbs are paler than the body because of white speckling; the buttocks and tail are paler; the ears are dark gray or brown with a whitish border, and white inside. Hair bases are yellow; the tips of the hairs are dark brown, and there is a white or orange bandjust below the tips. The belly is brown, paler than the rest of the body; the head is gray, flecked with white, and there are orange patches above and below the eyes. The skull is unknown. It is ironic that the only field study of a Himalayan Musk-deer was made in the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary in the Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, and applies to this unnamed “pepper-and-salt” form, which may be distinct and not referable to M. leucogaster at all. In other words, it may be that along the Himalayas there is in fact a series of different species, rather than just a single species.</p> <p>Habitat. Himalayan Musk-deer of this species or species-group inhabit the evergreen oak and birch forests of the Himalayan slopes of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Nepal as far east as the lower slopes of Mount Everest, between 3000 m and 4300 m. In Sikkim, where the treeline is higher because of the more evenly humid climate, they live between 2500 m and 4400 m; in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh, the habitat 1s between 2600 m and 3000 m in thick bamboo forest. In Kedarnath, musk-deer tend to be in the open pastures on northern slopes at night. These slopes are warmer, more sheltered, and less exposed during the night. They are found on warmer, more sunny southern slopes during the day, when they rest more in shrub cover. The preferred slope angle is 30—-40°.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet in winter consists 39% of leaves of trees and shrubs (half of this being Rhododendron), 16% forbs (half of this being Senecio), 7% grasses, 2% ferns, 15% moss, and 21% lichen. In spring and summer, the diet consists mostly of forbs and lichen; it is mostly forbs and leaves in autumn. This contrasts with the Siberian Muskdeer, whose diet is so heavily composed oflichen.</p> <p>Breeding. Latrines are most frequently used during the autumn rut. The milky-yellow musk, which is produced most strongly between May and July, may be conveyed in the urine of males, and stains it pink or red because it mixes with slough from the inner wall of the sac. Pasting on stems by the caudal gland occurs throughout the winter range, especially during the rut. Gestation length is 196-198 days; the newborn weigh 600 g. The twinning rate of only one in six births seems lower than other species, except perhaps the Alpine Musk-deer.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Overall, 41% of the time is spent active, mainly at night, 59% resting, mainly by day. They are relatively silent, but hiss when alarmed; they squeal when captured or attacked by a predator. Males make a metallic rustling noise, probably by tooth grinding, in aggressive interactions. There is a contact bleat of the young to its mother. Stotting, like a gazelle,is frequent during vigilance behavior. Females seem to be more wary than males, and often flee for up to 100 m before stopping and looking back; males have a shorter median flight distance, but they hiss less and tend to look back more when fleeing. In males, the flight distance seems to be greater (30 m) in autumn, in the rut, than in winter and spring, when it is only 15-20 m.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Scent marking includes defecation at latrines by both sexes, and secretion of musk and pasting with the caudal gland by males. Latrines occur throughout the home range and are most frequently used during the autumn rut—and perhaps not used at all in summer. In autumn, these musk-deer seem often to cover the feces with debris (earth, old pellets, and leaflitter), probably helping to keep them moist and smelly; the amount of droppingsis greater in covered than in uncovered latrines. Both sexes make them, but a male’s winter range has about 40 latrines, whereas the winter range of one female had only 23. Some latrines seem to be used exclusively by one individual, others by more than one, probably corresponding with the degree of overlap between two animals’ home ranges. Latrines may also be visitedjust to inspect them, without using them, and they can be located even when covered in snow. Both sexes scrape with the forefeet before and after defecation, but the feces are then covered, so they are not trodden underfoot and do not act to mark trails. The density varies from 3-4 ind/km? in Kedarnath up to 5-6 ind/km? in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, where there is more food available in winter because there is less snow. The home range of a two-year-old male in Kedarnath was 15 ha, whereas that of an older male was twice as large, 31-6 ha; an adult female occupied 26-8 ha, comparable to the adult male. Males act territorially, defending their borders by fighting.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, because of a population decline estimated to be more than 50% over the last three generations inferred from overexploitation, which is characteristic of the genus. The species has a relatively restricted range, so its population is unlikely to be large, even if there is only one species ofthis group. According to Michael Green, the potential habitat on the south side of the Himalayas could support about 200,000 musk-deer, but the population in the 1980s was probably only about 30,000, and at least 4000 adult males were killed each year. The current status is unknown.</p> <p>Bibliography. Green (1985, 1986, 1987), Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFB9F058FF7BF5D01AA9FDEB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D.text	03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu & Yan 1982	<div><p>6.</p> <p>Anhui Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus anhuiensis</p> <p>French: Porte-musc d'Anhui / German: Anhui-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero de Anhui</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus anhuiensis Wang, Hu &amp; Yan, 1982,</p> <p>Changling region (31° 10’ N, 115° 53’ E, altitude 500 m), Jinzhai county, Anhui province, China.</p> <p>First proposed as a subspecies of M. moschiferus, this taxon was first transferred to M. berezouskii, then given species rank. Skulls of this species are metrically unlike those of any other, and cytochrome b has consistent differences from other species, and it is probably the sister species to all others except for M. moschiferus. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Appears to be restricted to SW Anhui.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 69.6-76. 5 cm, tail 2-4 cm, shoulder height less than 50 cm, hip height less than 60 cm; weight 7.1-9. 7 kg. A small species; skull length is 14.1-14. 9 cm, with a mean of 14-38 cm. Gray-brown in color, with dense but not well-marked pale spots on the body. A neck-stripe is present. Lachrymal length is shorter than its height. Ears are darker than body. Hairs long, 38 mm on withers, 54 mm on rump.</p> <p>Habitat. Little is known of the typical habitat ofthis species, except that it is found in forested regions at low elevations, below 500 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Very little is known ofits way oflife and there are no data on food habits.</p> <p>Breeding. Females reach sexual maturity quickly, and are able to breed in their first year. This species is more likely to have twins than singletons.</p> <p>Activity patterns. No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information available, but likely similar to the Forest Musk-deer.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Population estimates are on the order of only 700 to 800 individuals living in the wild. The distribution of the species is very limited, likely only a little over 5000 km?. This speciesis classified as Endangered in the Chinese Red List and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China. Protection of habitatis needed, as well as better enforcement of hunting regulations. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a clear need to determine the population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.</p> <p>Bibliography. Groves &amp; Feng Zuojian (1986), Su Bing et al. (2001), Wang Qishan etal. (1982).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFBEF058FAC6FC461016F63D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7.text	03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus cupreus Grubb 1982	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Kashmir Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus cupreus</p> <p>French: Porte-musc du Cachemire / German: Kaschmir-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero de Cachemira</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus cupreus Grubb, 1982,</p> <p>Kashmir.</p> <p>Initially considered to be a subspecies of the Alpine Musk-deer M. chrysogaster. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Afghanistan (Nuristan Province) and Kashmir (NE Pakistan and NW India).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 85-100 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 12-17 kg. Skull length is 15-15. 5 cm. Gray brown, often vaguely spotted, with a conspicuous coppery reddish unspeckled dorsal “saddle”; rump very dark gray; underside light gray; throat white; lower segments of limbs whitish. Ears dark brown, white at base, with frosted rims. Hairs with long white bases; 33-38 mm long on withers, 37-58 mm on rump. As in Himalayan and Alpine Musk-deer, the lachrymal is longer than it is high.</p> <p>Habitat. Musk-deer of what is probably this species live in conifer and oak forests at 1500-3000 m in Nuristan, Afghanistan. In Pakistan, they are known from subalpine shrub between 3000 m and 4000 m in Gilgit-Baltistan; in Dachigam National Park and elsewhere in Kashmir, it lives between 2710 m and 3110 m, and in Pir Panjal Range somewhat lower, between 2530 m and 2650 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing is known about the way oflife ofthis species, but it is not likely to differ greatly from that of M. leucogaster and relatives.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to stay in more dense cover during the day, and use more open areas at night when they are more active.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known, but probably similar to M. leucogaster.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Conservation measures are uncertain for this species given its limited range. The value of the musk suggests that conservation will require effective anti-poaching activity. It may occur in some protected areas in India and Pakistan. The Government of Afghanistan has listed M. cupreus on their Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading ofthis species in that country.</p> <p>Bibliography. Groves et al. (1995), Grubb (1982).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFBEF058FFCCFDAD1BF5F7A7	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD.text	03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus fuscus Li 1981	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Black Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus fuscus</p> <p>French: Porte-musc noir / German: Schwarzes Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero negro</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus fuscus Li, 1981,</p> <p>Babo, Gongshan, Yunnan, 3500 m.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. S China, in SE Xizang (Zayu County, 28° 25’ N, 97° 06’ E) and NW Yunnan (Gongshan County, 26° 30’ N, 98° 50’ E), NE India (Sikkim), Bhutan and N Myanmar (Dchpu L’kha; Adung-Seingku valleys). It is likely on geographic grounds that it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh, NE India, and thatthis speciesis the one that has been found at over 4000 m in the Khumbu region of Mt Everest and Tserping, in NW Nepal.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 73-80 cm, tail 4-6 cm; weight 10-15 kg. Skull length 13-5—-14-5 cm. Blackish-brown all over, much darker than any other species, with no neck or throat markings, but very occasionally traces of yellowish spotting on body. The neck may be paler than the body; the throat has no longitudinal lines running down it, but often has two incomplete yellow collars. Underside is dark like the upper side. Rump with ochery tones, but buttocks black. Juvenile is agouti-banded, but the adult hairs are solid-colored except for very short white bases. Hair is long, 32-46 mm on withers, 51-63 mm on rump. Muzzle is short, less than half the length of the skull, but the lacrimal is longer than it is high. Limbs are more elongated than in M. berezouskii, despite the smaller skull. Metacarpal 88-101 mm, metatarsal 126-135 mm, so the hindlimb is even more elongated than in M. berezouskii; the metatarsal length is 152% of the metacarpal, and 96% of skull length, the metacarpal 63% of skull length. The hooves are elongated: 27-29 mm in one specimen (maximum in other speciesis 24 mm). Khumbu region specimens have a slightly paler underside and interramal region than those from China and Myanmar.</p> <p>Habitat. This speciesis said to live in shady coniferous forest at 2200-4600 m above sea level, extending into the alpine zone.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly grasses, mosses, and tender shoots of a variety of plants, but no details are available.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. No data available, but probably like related species, which tend to be more active nocturnally.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information available.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. This species is listed on CITES Appendix I in most countries in its range, and on Appendix II in China. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. It is on the China Key List as category II and the China Red List as Endangered. This species has gained some protection in Myanmar through the creation of Khakaborazi National Park, but poaching remains a problem in many areas.</p> <p>Bibliography. Groves et al. (1995), Li Zhixiang (1981).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFBEF058FF33F7711EAAFCFD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.text	03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moschus berezovskii Flerov 1929	<div><p>7.</p> <p>Forest Musk-deer</p> <p>Moschus berezovskii</p> <p>French: Porte-musc de forét / German: China-Moschustier / Spanish: Ciervo almizclero de bosque</p> <p>Taxonomy. Moschus berezovskii Flerov, 1929,</p> <p>Ho-tzi-how Pass, near Lungan, Sichuan.</p> <p>Flerov, when he described this species, regarded it as an enigmatic species of apparently restricted distribution in the alpine zone of Sichuan. It was not until the 1960s that it was shown that this is not in fact an alpine zone species at all, but is a forest animal, widespread in the forested areas of south-eastern China. Four subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M.b.berezovskiiFlerov,1929—SNingxia,SGansu,SEQuinghai,SShaanxi,WHenan,Sichuan,andSXizang;between500and2500m.</p> <p>M.b.bijiangensisWang&amp;Li,1993—NWYunnantoSEXizang(ZayuCounty).</p> <p>M. b. caobangis Dao, 1969 — S Yunnan (Mile County &amp; Nujiang Langcang), Guangxi, Guangdong, and N Vietnam (Cao Bang Province); between 50 m and 400 m. Presence uncertain in N Laos.</p> <p>M. b. yunguiensis Wang &amp; Ma, 1993 — from the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau margins NE to W Hubei (Yichang).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 70-80 cm, tail 3-4 cm, height at shoulder less than 50 cm; weight 6-9 kg. Skull length is 14-15 cm in the nominotypical subspecies, but only 13.2-14. 5 cm in subspecies bijiangensis and yunguiensis, and only 12:5-13-5 mm in caobangis, the smallest of all musk-deer. Hair bases are short, gray-white; the throat has three wide longitudinal stripes, white to orange in color, the lateral pair running from the jaw angles to the brisket. The central stripe is shorter, and all three may sometimes be broken. The haunch is yellower, but the rump is nearly black; the limbs are dark down the front surface. The underside is yellow. The ears are orange at the base, black at the tip, and white inside. The hair is 73-87 mm long on the withers, 45-68 mm on the rump, varying according to season. The facial skeleton is relatively short; the lachrymalis shorter than itis high. The limbs are relatively short: metacarpal length 73-89 mm, metatarsal 103-120 mm. The metatarsal is 135-139% of the metacarpal, so the hindlimb is relatively longer than in most other taxa. The metapodials are relatively short (the metatarsal only 80-81% of the skull length, the metacarpal only 59%) and robust, the width of the lower head of the metacarpal being more than 18% ofits length, of the metatarsal more than 15-5%. M. b. caobangis is very pale in color, limbs dark only from knee and hocks downward, but buttocks and ear tips are black. Hair shorter, 21-30 mm on withers, 38-47 mm on rump. M. b. byiangensis 1s paler than nominotypical M. b. berezouskii, fulvous-brown, with a grayish-white ventral surface; toothrow averaging slightly shorter. M. b. yunguiensis is somewhat smaller than nominotypical M. b. berezouski.</p> <p>Habitat. Lives predominantly in forests with mixed coniferous and broadleaved trees, usually below 3500 m, and often almost at sea level. In pure broadleafforest its population density is lower, and in shrub lowerstill; it goes into bamboo forest, but does not go into grassy areas or the “dwarf bush zone.” It is always found on relatively steep slopes, and does not like slopes under 10°. On northern slopes,it is found in forests between 1700 m and 2100 m, whereas on south-facing slopes,its highest density is in woodlands between 2100 m and 2450 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. They feed on twigs, shoots, lichens, moss, grasses, and leaves. Their leaping ability allows them to forage on the lower branches oftrees.</p> <p>Breeding. Dominant females (dominance is calculated by the frequency of one animal supplanting others) give birth from April 25 to May 25, low-ranking femaleslater, from May 15 to June 25. Birthweight is less than in other musk-deer, ranging from 350-558 g. Twinning is extremely high: 137 twin litters and 59 singletons are recorded. Juvenile mortality is high, about 50%, up to age two, but this differs according to the dominance rank of the mother. The survival rate of the offspring of dominant females is 100%; of females of the second rank, 56%; of the third rank, 43%; and of the fourth rank, 25%. In general, 30% of musk-deer survive to age 6, 20% to age 10%, just 10% to age 15.</p> <p>Activity patterns. They are most active between dusk and dawn, but alternately rest and feed.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The social organization, territoriality, etc., of this species are poorly known. The juvenile sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but after that males predominate until old age. The sex ratio in young adults (2-5-9 years) is 1-77:1, and in older adults (9-14-5 years) 2-8:1, whereas in aged individuals (14-5-20 years)itis 1:2. Young adults, at about 6-8 years of age, are the prime breeders. The mean generation length is 6-5-10 years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. By the early 1990s a decline from earlier levels was noticeable, and there had almost certainly been local extinctions; it remains relatively numerous only in western Sichuan and north-west Yunnan. Population sizes are very difficult to even estimate in musk-deer, but Prof Sheng Helin, from a lifetime’s experience, suggested that in 1992 there would be about 200,000 in the whole of China, split of course among at least five species, and it is evident that the population continues to decline. In Vietnam, Do Tuoc estimated the population to have been some 200 in the late 1990s, but here too there has been a decline.</p> <p>Bibliography. Guo Jian et al. (2001), Hu Zhongjun et al. (2007), Wang Yingxiang &amp; Harris (2008), Wang Yingxlang et al. (1993), Wong Yu et al. (2006), Xu Zhenggiang &amp; Xu Hongfa (2002), Yang Qisen, Hu Jinchu &amp; Peng Jitai (1990), Yang Qisen, Meng Xiuxiang et al. (2003),</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/03C6E250FFBEF059FACAF5871E9BFA66	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Moschidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 336-348, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720521
