identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
EC7D87A1FFF1FF8DE5B1FE3CC3A3FB39.text	EC7D87A1FFF1FF8DE5B1FE3CC3A3FB39.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manidae (Gray 1821)	<div><p>Family MANIDAE</p> <p>(PANGOLINS)</p> <p>• Small to medium-sized mammals with a series of unique morphological characteristics, including triangular head with pointed nose, no or small ear pinnae, very weak, toothless lower jaw, extremely long tongue, and scaled armor covering the body and tail.</p> <p>• 60-150 cm.</p> <p>• Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions.</p> <p>• Forested and open habitats in tropical and intertropical zones; from sea level to 2300 m.</p> <p>• 1 genus, 8 species, 10 taxa.</p> <p>• 2 species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF1FF8DE5B1FE3CC3A3FB39	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF3FF8FE747FE2DC274F935.text	EC7D87A1FFF3FF8FE747FE2DC274F935.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis crassicaudata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1803	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Thick-tailed Pangolin</p> <p>Manis crassicaudata</p> <p>French: Pangolin indien / German: Indien-Schuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin coligrueso</p> <p>Other common names: Indian Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis crassicaudata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803,</p> <p>India.</p> <p>This species is monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. NE &amp; SE Pakistan, India, S Nepal, Bangladesh, where it has been almost extirpated, and Sri Lanka. Doubtful records from Myanmar and China (Yunnan).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 51-75 cm, tail 33-47 cm; weight 10-16 kg. A large, round-shaped pangolin with broad scales.</p> <p>A specimen caught in Rajasthan (India) measured 170 cm in total length and weighed more than 32 kg. One pair of mammae. Males larger than females. Head cone-shaped and long muzzle. Nose pad color similar to or slightly darker than the brownish-pink skin. Auditory orifice with small ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Massive scaled armor covering the upper face and the whole body except the belly and inner side of legs. 160-200 scales in total (of which 40-46% on tail), large scales reaching 6.5-7 cm long, 8: 5 cm wide and 7-10 g; skin and scales constitute one-fourth to one-third of total body mass. Hairs bright, very thin and relatively long (greater than 0-3 cm), very sparsely distributed on naked skin surfaces. Hairs projecting between scales. 13-15 scale rows. Scales on the distal part of the body twice as wide asfirst rows of post-scapular scales; scales uniformly colored, from yellowish gray to brown. Scales V-shaped, with smooth contour, even in juveniles. Tail length shorter than head and body length. On tail, medio-dorsal row of scales continuous to tip. Ventral part oftail entirely covered by scales. Forelegs slightly shorter than hindlegs. Five long and slightly curved claws on forefeet, especially the third one; walk with weight on external border of claws, which curve backwards. The five claws on hindfeet kept shorter than in arboreal species by soil abrasion (plantigrade posture); claws only slightly curved, with third claw distinctly longer. Skull 9-14 cm long, cone-shaped, and relatively massive. Number of caudal vertebrae: 30. Diploid number 2n = 36.</p> <p>Habitat. Recorded from various types of forests, including rainforest in Sri Lanka, from plain to middle hill levels. Can also be found in grasslands and secondary forests impacted by humans, provided the primary food source (termites and ants) remains abundant. May sometimes reach high elevations; there have been sightings at 1100 m and 2300 m, in Sri Lanka and the Nilgiris (India), respectively. Presence in arid thorn forests of Pakistan suggests some tolerance to desiccation.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Almost strictly myrmecophagous. Selective on prey consumed, but exact species preyed upon are unknown. Feed on eggs, larvae, young, and adults, eggs being preferred. Examination of stomach contents from individuals caught in India documented a greater diversity of prey, including beetles, cockroaches, and possibly worms (or unidentified grubs). Nocturnal, using its sense of smell when foraging and while digging to reach the nests or mounds. Foraging mostly occurs on the ground, but arboreal ants may be preyed upon, as seen in the rainforest canopy of Sri Lanka. Tears apart and digs into mounds using the three long center claws on the forefeet. Loose soil is thrown backwards with hindfeet; when digging deep under or into the mound, moves out backwards to expel soil with its forefeet. When feeding, the rostral part of the tongue is rapidly inserted and withdrawn to capture prey; the same movement is used for drinking. After a foraging raid, characteristic large excavations are visible in mounds. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous saliva secreted by submandibular glands, and literally acts as a “protrude and withdraw” touch organ. The thin, flat mandibles and weak temporo-mandibularjoints seriously limit movements ofjaw. The symphyseal area of the mandibles forms a flat surface where the tongue can slip; extrinsic lingual muscles are attached on ridges present on the internal sides of the mandible. The tongue reaches 30 cm long. It is attached behind the larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). The latter is relatively shorter than in African species, and ends in an enlarged spade-shaped plate. The stomach has two chambers, the first compartment functioning as a storage chamber (about four-fifths of total volume). The second, smaller chamber has thick muscular walls and many rugae on its inner side and acts as a grinding compartment. The scales are made of a significant proportion of scleroprotein, the production of which probably requires a large amount of protein intake.</p> <p>Breeding. Very poorly known. During the mating period, males and females may share the same burrow, and show some diurnal activities. Males have testes in a fold of skin located in the groin (i.e. not descended into a scrotum). Embryo develops in one of the uterine horns. Gestation lasts 65-70 days; placenta is diffuse and non-deciduate. A single young is usually born, but twins have been reported. Births occur throughout the year (reported in January, July, and November). At birth, young weigh 235-400 g and measure about 30 cm. Newborns have eyes open,soft scales, and protruding hairs between scales; they can crawl immediately. A young pangolin is carried on mother’s tail. When mother and young are disturbed, the latter is held against the mother’s belly and protected by her tail.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, mostly nocturnal, and terrestrial. A poorly known species. In habitats like Sri Lankan rainforests, may be more arboreal, using its claws and prehensile tail as a support to readjust forelegs while climbing. Digs its own burrows in the ground, at depth of 1-5-6 m, often under large rocks; the entrance is frequently hidden with dirt. Main walk is quadrupedal, arching its back and raising its tail parallel to the ground. Bipedal stance on hindlegs is used to survey surroundings. Body temperature 33-34°C. Metabolic rate reaches only 36% of the expected mammalian range, notably because skin and scales—which are metabolically inactive—represent one-fourth to one-third of the total body weight. Scales are highly sensitive to touch. When in danger, rolls up into a ball, the large tail pressed tightly against face and belly for protection. Scales on sides oftail are sharp;tail can be projected to harm enemies. Longevity in captivity may exceed 19 years.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Virtually unknown. Rarely observed in the wild due to its secretive, solitary, and nocturnal way oflife. Emission of a loud hissing sound has been reported when the animalis frightened or angry. Possesses anal glands that emit a yellow fluid with strong and musky smell, possibly used for marking or defense. Seems nowhere common, the lowest densities apparently at westernand easternmost limits of range (Pakistan and Bangladesh, respectively). In India and Sri Lanka, its overall status is not well known, but has never been reported as abundant.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The annual export quota is zero for specimens removed from the wild for trade. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List because suspected to be in significant decline as a result of hunting for food and traditional medicine. Although protected by national legislation and present in a number of protected areas throughout its range, it is heavily exploited for its meat and its supposed medicinal or magical properties. Scales are used as an aphrodisiac or made into rings or charms, and skins are used to manufacture leather goods (including boots and shoes). Although consumption of the Thick-tailed Pangolin appears to be mostly local, there is a risk of a shift to an international trade following the severe depletion of the two other Asian species (M. javanica and M. pentadactyla), which are currently subject to the market of Chinese traditional medicine.</p> <p>Bibliography. Acharjyo &amp; Misra (1972), Aswathanarayana (2000), Choudhury (2004), Corbet &amp; Hill (1992), Ellerman &amp; Morrison-Scott (1951), Heath (1995), Khan (1984), McNab (2000), Mitra (1998), Molur (2008), Ogilivie &amp; Bridgwater (1967), Phillips (1926, 1928), Roberts &amp; Vielliard (1971), Sharma (2002), Stoney (1948), Weigl| (2005), Yahya (2001).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF3FF8FE747FE2DC274F935	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF3FF8EE27AF972CC61F9BD.text	EC7D87A1FFF3FF8EE27AF972CC61F9BD.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Short-tailed Pangolin</p> <p>Manis pentadactyla</p> <p>French: Pangolin a queue courte / German: China-Schuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin colicorto</p> <p>Other common names: Chinese Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Taiwan.</p> <p>Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M.p.pentadactylaLinnaeus,1758—TaiwanI.</p> <p>M.p.auritaHodgson,1836—fromtheHimalayanfoothillsinENepal,Bhutan,andNEIndiatoextremeNEBangladesh,N&amp;CMyanmar,extremeNThailand,NLaos,NVietnam,andChinasouthoftheYangtzeRiver.Limitsofrangearepoorlyknown.</p> <p>M. p. pusilla].A. Allen, 1906 — Hainan I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 40-58 cm, tail 25-38 cm; weight 2.5-7 kg. A mediumsized pangolin, with pronounced ear pinna and dark, rounded scales contrasting with bright, yellowish-gray skin. One pair of mammae. Males larger than females. Head pearshaped and muzzle relatively short. Nose pad color similar to or slightly darker than the bright, yellowish-gray skin. Eyes small and iris dark. Scaled armor covering the upper face and the whole body except the belly and inner side of legs. Hairs bright, very thin and relatively long (longer than 0-3 cm); sparsely distributed on naked skin surfaces. Hairs project between scales. 15-17 dorsal scale rows. Width of scales of the distal part of the body similar to that of first rows of post-scapular scales; scales uniformly colored, from dark brown to dark gray. Yellowish orange scales may appear on certain regions of body, individuals then looking bicolor. Scales V-shaped, with smooth contour, even in juveniles. Tail length shorter than head and body. On tail, medio-dorsal row ofscales continuous to tip. Ventral part of tail has a narrow, terminal skin pad, due to the absence of a median scale. Forelegs slightly longer than the stout hindlegs. Five long and slightly curved claws on forefeet, especially the third one; claws turn backwards during walking, directly supporting the animal’s weight. Five slightly curved claws on hindfeet, with third claw distinctly longer. Characteristic post-anal depression, not found in any other species of pangolin. Skull 7.5-10 cm long, cone-shaped, and relatively massive. Number of caudal vertebrae: 27-28. Diploid number 2n = 40.</p> <p>Habitat. Occupies a wide range of habitats, including primary and secondary rainforests, coniferous, broadleaf, shrub, and bamboo forests, and grasslands. Can also be found in areas disturbed by humans, such as agricultural fields, but seems to avoid close vicinity to settlements. Suitability of habitats is positively correlated to the density of undergrowth vegetation, especially in winter. May occur at high altitudes, notably in Nepal (up to 1500 m) and Taiwan Island (up to 2000 m); found at higher elevations where co-occurring with the Sunda Pangolin (Manisjavanica).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Myrmecophagous, this species feeds mostly on terrestrial ants in summer (including Polyrhachis), and termites in winter (among which, Macrotermes and Coptotermes). Highly selective on species preyed upon, but uses all stages from eggs to adults. Active nocturnally, using its sense of smell when foraging and while digging to reach the contents of mounds. Mostly forages underleaf litter and rotten wood; digs to follow the 0-8-2 m underground tunnels made by its prey to reach their network of nests (deeper in winter). Tunnels and nests are dug using its three central, long (up to 5 cm) forefoot claws. The termites in an average-size nest can be devoured in 30 minutes. Exceptionally large nests (reaching 90 cm of diameter) are resealed once the animalis full, and revisited the next night. In summer, an individual feeds 50-100 m around its burrow for several nights, and then moves to a new site when food becomes scarce. Winter feeding behavior is unknown. Reported to be able to go 5-7 days in summer and ten days in winter without eating. During feeding, the rostral part of the tongueis rapidly inserted and withdrawn to capture prey; the same movement is used for drinking. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous and alkaline (pH = 9-10) mucus, secreted by large salivary glands located in the pharyngeal and cervical areas and extending almost to the shoulders. With its sensory terminations and a pair of terminal, ovoid bodies with highly cornified and innervated epithelium, the tongue is very sensitive to touch. The thin, flat mandibles and weak temporo-mandibular joints seriously limitjaw movements. The symphyseal area of the mandibles forms a flat surface where the tongue can slip; extrinsic lingual muscles are attached on ridges on the insides of the mandible. During feeding, a fold of skin (plica alaris) closes the nasal passage to prevent the escape of prey. The tongue reaches c. 15 cm long and 1 cm wide. It is attached behind the larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). The latter is relatively shorter than in African species, and ends in an enlarged spade-shaped plate. The first third of the tongue is free and partly folded in the cervical region, and protruded when foraging. There are two stomach compartments, a storage chamber (about four-fifths of total volume) and a smaller chamber with thick muscular walls and many rugae on its inner side; the latter acts as a grinding compartment. The stomach of a 4-5 kg individual contained c.0-5 kg of food.</p> <p>Breeding. Males have testes in a fold of skin located in the groin (i.e. not descended into a scrotum). Female maturity is reached in the first year, but mating seems to occur later in the year (late autumn); older females mate in late summer. Females mate outside their burrow with a single male during a 3-5 days period. Tails of male and female are entwined when copulating; each copulation lasts 3-5 min. The embryo develops in one of the uterine horns. The gestation period is poorly known, but lasts more than two months; the placenta is diffused and non-deciduate. A single young is born. Births have been reported from November to February. At birth, the young weigh 70-100 g and measure 15-21 cm. Newborns have eyes open,soft scales, and can crawl immediately; hairs protrude between scales around one week after birth. The offspring spends the winter with its mother in the burrow, where it is suckled and later provided live prey from the termite mounds sharing their den. Mother and young occupy a rearing chamber halfway along the burrow’s tunnel, thermally isolated by weeds and closed off from the main termite mound. Lactation is reported to stop after around three months. The young emerges from the burrow in spring, and is generally carried on mother’s tail. Although a stray young is generally not retrieved by its mother, an orphan may be adopted by another female. When sleeping or disturbed,it is protected by the mother’stail curled on the belly.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, mostly nocturnal, and terrestrial. A poorly known species. Digs its own burrows while foraging, using its forefoot claws and inserting its tail into the ground for support; loose soil is expelled using foreand hindfeet while backing up from the burrow. Excavation rate is 2-3 m/h. Burrows are mainly found on 20-60° slopes with south-facing entrance and dense vegetation cover. There is a single entrance of 15-20 cm in diameter, which then widens into larger chambers reaching 2 m in diameter; entrance is frequently hidden or blocked with dirt. Winter is spent in a 3-4 m deep burrow, occupied by a single adult or a mother and a young. Whether the Short-tailed Pangolin uses the same winter burrow or repeatedly changes is unknown. Summer burrows are shallower (15-50 cm below ground) and shorter (80-100 cm long), and have a series of walls of dirt within them. In summer, these pangolins show a wide activity range, and generally change burrows every 2-7 days. Observed active for relatively short and interspersed periods, between 17:00-19:00 h and 22:00-02:00 h. Main walk is quadrupedal, with tail in contact with ground. Walk is usually slow, but they can move quickly using a bipedal stance on hindlegs and tail as a balance. Able swimmer and climber. Caterpillar-like walk is used to climb large trunks or branches, with prehensile tail curled up as support. Body temperature reaches 33-34-5°C. Body has a fat layer c. 1 cm thick that may contribute to insulation from external temperatures. Metabolic rate is much higher than in larger species of pangolins; it is increased to maintain stable body temperature when ambient temperature is less than 25°C. Higher affinity of its hemoglobin to oxygen compared to non-burrowing mammals suggests adaptation to long periods of stay in hypoxic environment such as sealed burrows. Respiration rhythm is irregular—from 14-20 to 42-53 breaths/minute—and sometimes almost apneic. Reported to survive 1 h of constrained submersion under water. Reacts to alarming noise by putting head between hindlegs, to present the dorsal part of the scaled armor as a first defense. In case of imminent danger, rolls into a ball. Scales on sides oftail are sharp and can be used to harm enemies.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Virtually unknown. Rarely observed in the wild due to its secretive, solitary, and nocturnal way of life. Males fight when confronted in the field. In the presence of a receptive female, captive males may fight until death, suggesting some territoriality and/or hierarchy in the wild. Emission of a hissing sound has been reported when the animalis frightened or angry. Possesses anal glands that emit a strong and musky smell, possibly used for marking or defense; the post-anal depression is also likely to play a role in olfactory communication. Digs holes 5-10 cm deep to deposit urine and feces, using its forefoot claws or rubbing with the scales ofits neck.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The annual export quota is zero for specimens removed from the wild for trade. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List because of a dramatic reduction of populations in the last 15 years, likely to continue over the next 15 years given the heavy hunting pressure driven by the Chinese traditional medicine market. Reported to have undergone a dramatic decrease in China since 2000, with a remaining population estimated at 25,100 -49,450 individuals. In some Chinese provinces, populations have decreased by 90% in less than ten years (Guangdong and Hunan), or may have become extirpated (Hainan, Henan, and Jiangsu). Although protected by national legislation and present in a number of protected areas throughout its range,it is heavily exploited for its meat and its supposed medicinal properties, a situation exacerbated by continuous destruction ofits habitats. Large seizures of illegally traded animals regularly occur, and much greater law enforcementis needed to limit poaching. The Short-tailed Pangolin is reported to be an easy species to hunt, given its terrestrial way oflife and ground burrows,so the hunting threat might be even greater than to the semi-arboreal Sunda Pangolin. Since the mid-1980s, a dramatic shift from local consumption towards international trade (to China) has occurred. In Vietnam, where it has become extremely rare, most hunters sell their live catches to Chinese export, with the price now exceeding US $ 95/kg.</p> <p>Bibliography. Allen (1930), Aswathanarayana (2000), Chao et al. (1993), Cheng Haiyang (1986), Cheng Haiyang et al. (1986), Choudrury (2004), Corbet &amp; Hill (1992), Duckworth, Steinmitz et al. (2008), Ellerman &amp; Morrison-Scott (1953), Francis (2008), Heath (1992a), Ke Yayong et al. (1999), Krause &amp; Leeson (1974), Kubota et al. (1962), Li Zhang et al. (2008), Masui (1967), McNab (2000), Newton et al. (2008), Pocock (1924), Smith (2008), Wenhui Nie et al. (2009), Wu Shenghay et al. (2007), Wu Shibao, Liu Naifa, Li Youyu &amp; Sun Ruyong (2005a, 2009), Wu Shibao, Liu Naifa, Ma Guangzhi et al. (2003), Wu Shibao, Liu Naifa, Zhang Yingmei &amp; Ma Guangzhi (2004), Wu Shibao, Ma Guangzhi et al. (2004).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF3FF8EE27AF972CC61F9BD	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF2FF89E2E9F90AC6CDF38D.text	EC7D87A1FFF2FF89E2E9F90AC6CDF38D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis javanica Desmarest 1822	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Sunda Pangolin</p> <p>Manis javanica</p> <p>French: Pangolin de Malaisie / German: Malaien-Schuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin de la Sonda</p> <p>Other common names: Malayan Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822,</p> <p>Java, Indonesia.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the subgenus Paramanis. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Throughout mainland SE Asia, from C &amp; S Myanmar to W &amp; SE Thailand, C &amp; S Laos, Cambodia, C &amp; S Vietnam, and Peninsular Malaysia; also present in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, and several adjacent small islands. Most likely extinct from E Bangladesh, where it has not been reported for more than 40 years. Northern and western limits of its range are poorly known.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 40-65 cm, tail 35-58 cm; weight 3-10 kg. A mediumsized pangolin, with rounded,olive to reddish-brown scales and pads on forefeet. One pair of mammae. Males larger than females. Head conical and rostrum relatively long and thick. Nose pad color similar to orslightly darker than the pale, grayish-pink skin. Auditory orifice with ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Scaled armor covering the upper face and the whole body, except the belly and inner side of legs. Hairs whitish, very thin and relatively long (longer than 0-3 cm); quite densely imbedded all over the naked skin. Hairs project between scales. 15-18 dorsal scale rows. Scales approximately as long as wide. Width ofscales on the distal part of the body similar to that offirst rows of postscapular scales; scales uniformly olive to reddish-brown, but yellow zones may sometimes appear on individuals. Scales V-shaped, with smooth contour, even in juveniles. Tail length slightly inferior to head and body. On tail, medio-dorsal row ofscales continuous to tip. Ventral part oftail has a narrow, terminal skin pad, due to the absence of a median scale. Forelegsslightly shorter than hindlegs. Five short and curved claws on forefeet, with the third claw less than twice as long as the others; animals walk with wrist folded up and claws perpendicular to ground. Five markedly curved claws on hindfeet, with third claw distinctly longer. Skull 6-10 cm long, V-shaped. 28-29 caudal vertebrae. Diploid number 2n = 38.</p> <p>Habitat. Main habitat is primary and secondary rainforest (excluding swamp forest), where large trees provide numerous shelters. This species seems able to inhabit perturbed areas such as fragmented forest islands, gardens, and plantations, including near human settlements. It is however absent from zones of extensive agriculture. May occur at high elevations, notably in Lombok Island, Indonesia (1500 m) and Borneo (up to 1700 m); found at lower elevations where co-occurring with the Short-tailed Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla). In its northern range, probably does not occur above 600 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Myrmecophagous; in Singapore, strictly feeds on ants (including Polyrachis and Anoplolepis) and termites (undetermined taxa). Highly selective on species preyed upon, notably avoiding the genera Philidris, Myrmicaria, and Crematogaster. Ratio between time spent foraging on ants and termites was 67/23%, suggesting that ants might be preferred. Nocturnal, using its excellent sense of smell when foraging. Mostly forages underleaf litter and rotten woods. When feeding, the rostral part of the tongue is rapidly inserted and withdrawn to capture prey. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. Although the flat mandible and weak temporomandibularjoints give limited movementto the jaw, masticatory muscles are well developed; given the absence of mastication in pangolins, they are probably involved in control of oral cavity pressure during feeding. The symphyseal area of the mandibles forms a flat surface where the tongue can slip; extrinsic lingual muscles are attached on ridges present on the internal sides of the mandible. Tongue is attached ventral to larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). The latteris relatively shorter than in African species, and ends in an enlarged spade-shaped plate. The first half of the tongue is a tubular structure designated as the glossal tube, the cavity of which is continuous with the oral cavity. The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous mucus, notably provided via the glossal tube. Unique physiology of kidneys, with prominent and very active proximalstraight tubules,is possibly related to the great need to provide the salivary glands with water. Although the tongue has a squamous, stratified epithelium lining, tolerance to stretching appears limited. The stomach has a remarkable, wide distribution of gastrin-immunoreactive cells in the mucous and pyloric glands, suggesting a major, yet unknown, function of those cells in the digestive process.</p> <p>Breeding. May require mature forests with large trees to provide suitable shelters for raising young. Males have testes in a fold of skin located in the groin (i.e. not descended into a scrotum). Embryo develops in one of the uterine horns. Gestation period is poorly known: a period of 2-3 months has been proposed; placenta is diffuse and of epitheliochorial type. A single young is usually born, but twins have been reported. A birth has been recorded in September. After a few days, young is carried clinging to the tail of its mother. When sleeping, young is protected by the mother’stail curled on the belly. Weaning likely occurs after three months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, mostly nocturnal and semi-arboreal. A very poorly known species. In Singapore, a female with young had shelters in hollows located at the base of large, dead or live trees. Entrances were single or double, and diameter was 13— 24 cm. In contrast, adult males were found resting among dense clumps of grasses such as the cogongrass (I/mperata cylindrical), or on branches of tall trees; they were also observed resting in buildings. Main peak of activity recorded between 03:00 h and 06:00 h, but animals can be active at any time of day (especially subadults) and night. Mean active period was 2-2-5 h/day. A female with young alternated between three shelters 300-500 m from one another, the same shelter being used for a mean period of about nine days. Main walk is quadrupedal, arching its back and raising its tail parallel to the ground. Caterpillar-like walk is used to climb large trunks or branches, with the prehensile tail curled up as a support. Legs, sacrum, and a large part of the tail have a network of arteries divided into numerous small vessels (rete mirabile), possibly facilitating blood circulation during powerful and prolonged muscular contractions such as holding the rolled-up defensive posture, typical of pangolins.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Almost unknown. Rarely observed in the wild dueto its secretive,solitary, and nocturnal way oflife. In Singapore, a female with young foraged very nearits dens and had a home range of ¢.7 ha. In contrast, males had much larger ranges (mean: c.43 ha). Extent of home range overlap between and within genders is unknown. The female showed a higher level of den fidelity than males, the latter only spending one or two consecutive days at the same resting site. Seems relatively abundant in the southern part of its range, but extremely rare in its northern range.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The annual export quota is zero for specimens removed from the wild for trade. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List because of a dramatic reduction of populations in the last 15 years, likely to continue over the next 15 years given the heavy hunting pressure, the pressure moving towards its southern range (Indonesia) and being driven by the Chinese traditional medicine market. Although protected by national legislation and present in a number of protected areas throughout its range,it is heavily exploited for its meat and its supposed medicinal properties (to cure cancer, notably), a situation exacerbated by continuous destruction ofits habitats. Although the Sunda Pangolin is able to survive in humanmodified habitats, the presence of mature forests with large trees seems to be necessary for breeding success. In Laos, populations have decreased by 90% in the last ten years. Illegally harvested for local or international trade throughout South-east Asia, but exact number is unknown. Much greater law enforcement is needed to limit poaching from protected areas. Since the mid-1980s, a dramatic shift from local consumption towards international trade (to China) has become established; nevertheless, prior trading activities were already intense: e.g. ¢.10,000 Sunda Pangolins were exported from Borneo between the late 1950s and early 1960s. In Vietnam, the majority of hunters sell their live catches to Chinese exporters, with the price per kilogram now exceeding US $ 95.</p> <p>Bibliography. Corbet &amp; Hill (1992), Duckworth, Pattanavibool et al. (2008), Endo et al. (1998), Foenander (1953), Francis (2008), Khan (1984), Kimura et al. (2006), Lapki Chan (1995), Lim (2009), Lim &amp; Ng (2008), Newton et al. (2008), Nisa et al. (2005), Payne &amp; Francis (2005), Pongchairerk et al. (2008), Saban &amp; Gasc (1978), Wenhui Nie et al. (2009), Wu Shibao et al. (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF2FF89E2E9F90AC6CDF38D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF5FF89E74BF3DBC352F46B.text	EC7D87A1FFF5FF89E74BF3DBC352F46B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis culionensis de Elera 1915	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Palawan Pangolin</p> <p>Manis culionensis</p> <p>French: Pangolin de Palawan / German: Palawan-Schuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin de Palawan</p> <p>Other common names: Philippine Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Pholidotus culionensis de Elera, 1915,</p> <p>Culion Isand, Calamian Islands, Philippines.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the subgenus Paramanis. Recently confirmed as a distinct species from the Sunda Pangolin (M. javanica) on the basis of discrete morphological characters. Recorded from 7000-5000 years ago from archeologicalsites on Palawan Island. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Endemic to the Palawan faunal region, including Palawan, Culion, Busuanga, and Calauit Is. Introduced to Apulit I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 45-54 cm, tail 39-50 cm; weight 2.5-8 kg. A mediumsized pangolin, with small, brownish to creamy orange-yellow scales. Morphology similar to M. javanica, but six main characters differ: 19-21 dorsal scale rows; smaller size of scales in nuchal, scapular, and post-scapular regions; slightly shorter ratio of head and body totail length; ratio of nasal bone to greatest skull length inferior to onethird; posterior region of palatine bone not ventrally inflated and showing short lateral walls; and posterior extension of zygomatic process short (not posterior to sphenopalatine foramen). One pair of mammae. Sexual dimorphism unknown. Head conical and rostrum relatively long and thick. Nose pad color dark brownish, contrasting with pale brownish skin. Auditory orifice with small ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Relatively small scales cover the upper face and the whole body, except the belly and inner side of legs. Hairs whitish, very thin and relatively long (longer than 0-3 cm); quite densely imbedded all over the naked skin. Hairs project between scales. Scales approximately as long as wide. Scales on the distal part of the body twice as wide as those on the first post-scapular rows; scales uniformly colored, from brownish to creamy orangeyellow, both colors sometimes appearing on the same individual. Scales V-shaped, with smooth contour, even in juveniles. Tail length shorter than head and body length. On tail, medio-dorsal row of scales continuous to tip. Ventral part oftail has a narrow terminal skin pad, due to the absence of a median scale. Forelegs slightly shorter than hindlegs. Five short and curved claws on forefeet, with the third claw less than twice as long as the others; walks with wrist folded up, with claws perpendicular to ground. Five markedly curved claws on hindfeet, with third claw distinctly longer. Skull 6.9-5 cm long, V-shaped. 29-30 caudal vertebrae.</p> <p>Habitat. [Lowland primary and secondary rainforests; can be found in habitats impacted by humans, including grassland/secondary rainforest mosaics, provided that logs or trees are available. Shows some affinity for fig trees (Ficus spp.), the latter providing both shelter and ant colonies attracted by their fruits.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Almost unknown. Probably similar (myrmecophagous) to M. javanica. Uses excellent olfaction to forage, and observed feeding on arboreal termite nests. Removes outer layer using its forefoot claws, and then digs into the nest, at the same time continuously protruding its tongue to catch prey. Visited nests show a round hole on one side from which the prey has been extracted; small nests can remain on the tree, whereas larger nests are found destroyed on the ground. In captivity, can consume the content of four medium-sized (c. 35 cm in diameter) nests in a night.</p> <p>Breeding. Unknown. Young with mother reported to be first seen in August.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, nocturnal, and probably semi-arboreal. A secretive species, very poorly known. Uses its well-developed sense of smell to orient itself, sometimes stopping to raise its head and sniff the air before choosing a direction. During climbing, tail is curled around trunks and branches to secure position and assist moving. When disturbed, makes a hissing noise and rolls up into a ball, in the typical defensive position of pangolins.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Unknown.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II (under M. javanica). The annual export quota is zero for specimens removed from the wild for trade. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List because they are expected to undergo a 30% population decline over the next ten years, given current trends of deforestation and hunting. Because the biology of the species is almost unknown,further research is needed to better characterize population status and major threats. Suspected to be moderately abundant, with partially localized distribution. Considered rare in southern Palawan. Although present in several protected areas of Palawan, and protected under a total ban on wildlife collection, local hunters report it to be declining. Weak law enforcement makesit a regularly poached species. Sold in bushmeat markets for its meat; skin and scales are said to be used against asthma. Trade for food and traditional medicine is mostly local, occurring within Palawan, but shipments from Palawan to Manila (Luzon Island.) and Sabah (Malaysia) have been reported. In southern Palawan, price of pangolin meat increased from US $ 1-50 to US $ 4-30 per kilogram between 2006 and 2008, reflecting the growing demand. There is a risk of a shift to an international trade with China following the ongoing, intense depletion of Sunda Pangolin (M. javanica) and the Short-tailed Pangolin (M. pentadactyla) involved by the market of Chinese traditional medicine.</p> <p>Bibliography. Acosta-Lagrada (2009), Batin &amp; Widmann (2008), Esselstyn et al. (2004), Feiler (1998), Gaubert &amp; Antunes (2005), Heaney et al. (1998), Hoogstraal (1951), Lacerna &amp; Widmann (1999), Lewis et al. (2008), Schoppe &amp; Cruz (2009), Schultze (1914).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF5FF89E74BF3DBC352F46B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF5FF88E243F3BDC224F904.text	EC7D87A1FFF5FF88E243F3BDC224F904.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis gigantea Illiger 1815	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Giant Pangolin</p> <p>Manis gigantea</p> <p>French: Pangolin géant / German: Riesenschuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin gigante</p> <p>Other common names: Giant Ground Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis gigantea Illiger, 1815,</p> <p>no type locality indicated.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the genus/subgenus Smutsia. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Discontinuously distributed, from Senegal to Ghana in W Africa, and in the C African rainforest block from Cameroon to Uganda, W Kenya, and W Tanzania, and south to extreme NW Angola, also present in Bioko I. Sightings from Dahomey Gap and S Nigeria remain unconfirmed.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 67-81 cm, tail 58-68 cm; weight ¢. 30 kg. The largest and heaviest of the pangolins. One pair of mammae. Adult males larger than females. Head cone-shaped and muzzle long; the latter is thicker than in other species. Nose pad color similar to the pale yellow—pink skin (may reach bright purple bright). Auditory orifice without ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Massive scaled armor covering the upper face and the whole body except the belly and innerside of legs. Hairs bright, very thin and short on belly (less than 0-3 cm); very sparsely distributed on other skin surfaces, except around the auditory orifice, where they form a tuft. No hairs project between scales. 15-16 dorsal scale rows. The scales on the distal part of the body are at least twice as large as first rows of postscapular scales; scales are uniformly colored, from beige to gray-brown. Tail length is shorter than head and body length. On the tail, the medio-dorsal row of scalesis interrupted before the tip; in juveniles and subadults, the posterior margin is three-cusped (can also be observed on back). These cusps—and original shape—disappear with age because of natural abrasion. Ventral part oftail entirely covered by scales. Legs massive, especially hindlegs; forelegs shorter than hindlegs. Five long and slightly curved claws on forefeet, especially the third one; pangolins walk with their weight on the external border of the claws, with claws pointing backwards. The five claws on the hindfeet are kept shorter by soil abrasion (plantigrade posture) than in arboreal species; the hind claws are only slightly curved. Large anal glands open via ducts on both sides of the anus. Skull 13-16 cm long, cone-shaped and massive. 23-27 caudal vertebrae.</p> <p>Habitat. Present in riparian forest, rainforest, savanna-forest mosaics; can survive in high-rainfall secondary grasslands. Highly dependent on water. Avoids human-impacted areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Almost strictly myrmecophagous; genera preyed upon include Macrotermes, Pseudacanthotermes, Apicotermes, Protermes (termites), and Palthothyreus and Anomma (ants). Other arthropods are also consumed, such as water beetles (Dytiscidae) through licking of water surface. In Gabon, seems closely dependent on ground, mound-building termites. Requires a huge quantity of available prey biomass, consuming up to two liters of prey per day. Uses olfaction to forage between midnight and dawn, opportunistically scratching soil and substratum with its powerful foreclaws; seasonal variations in feeding activities are unknown. May undergo long feeding stasis (aestivation) during unfavorable climatic periods, probably compensated by periods of high storage of body fat. To feed on termites in the substratum, usually digs tunnels that rarely reach more than one meter below ground level. May walk several kilometers and visit up to a dozen termite mounds in a night. The same mounds can be visited each night. After a Giant Pangolin raid, termite colonies are only partly destroyed and frequently recover. When feeding, the rostral part of the tongue, which is thin enough to pass through fissures,is rapidly inserted and withdrawn to capture prey. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous saliva secreted by submandibular glands. With its numerous sensory receptors and a large, terminal organ similar to a pressure receptor, the tongue is very sensitive to touch. It literally acts as a “protrude and withdraw” touch organ; chewing is minor given the lack of teeth and few taste buds present. The flat mandible and weak temporal-mandibular joints, coupled with the quasi-absence of masticatory muscles, give limited movements to the jaw. The symphyseal area of the mandibles forms a flat surface where the tongue can slip; extrinsic lingual muscles are attached on ridges present inside the mandible. The tongue can be 70 cm long. It is attached behind the larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). Xiphoid cartilages form two elongated bars that pass through the iliac fossa and then curve dorso-laterally to end up with a spatula shape in the right crus of diaphragm. The xiphisternum provides the necessary attachments to the complex system of glossal protrudor and retractor muscles of the tongue. The hyoid bone has a different role than in other mammals,since it helps remove termites and ants from the tongue at the entrance to the esophagus; a transverse fibrous septum in the tongue itself serves for the attachment of lingual muscles. The first 20 cm of the tongue are loosely attached and partly folded in the cervical region. The tongue has a cavernous tissue, also found in other mammals requiring little or no mastication, which may affect or control the level of rigidity of its rostral part. The stomach contains a muscular structure similar in function to a gizzard,filled with small stones (maximum diameter 5 mm), which might contribute to grinding the exoskeleton of prey.</p> <p>Breeding. Little information exists. Fetuses 24-29 cm long were found in pregnant females from DR Congo in November and December. Gestation may last approximately five months. A single young is born with eyes open and soft, amber-colored scales that harden rapidly; newborns cannot use their legs, but wriggle on their belly. Young start feeding on arthropods at three months, and stay with mother until next birth.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, nocturnal, and terrestrial, the Giant Pangolin is a secretive species difficult to survey. During the day, opportunistically rests in burrows, dead and fallen trees, dense vegetation (thickets, piles of plant debris), and simple tunnels dig under ant or termite mounds. The tunnels are used for resting and feeding, and have many openings; the mean depth of the gallery network usually is 50-60 cm. The Giant Pangolin’s gait is an alternated walk with alternative rising of the tail; when the tail is down,it leaves deep drag marks on the ground. May leave numerous footprints along river banks in riparian forests; plantigrade hindfeet leave tracks similar to those of a small elephant. Poor swimmer, crossing streams with body entirely submerged, nose emerging, paddling with feet. Absence of pronosupination in forefeet, but powerful pronation of hindfeet due to a specific muscular flexor, supporting bipedism (although bipedal walk might be less frequent than in the Ground Pangolin, M. temminckii). Body temperature approximately 34°C during daytime, slightly below the usual mammalian range; may decrease to 26°C when ambient temperature reaches 17°C (under experimental conditions). Tree climbing is feasible, buttail is poorly prehensile and so does not contribute. When in danger, rolls up into a ball, the large tail strongly pressed against face and belly for protection. Tail can also be projected with force towards the source of danger. The powerful forefeet and claws can destroy metal plates and cement walls 3 cm thick.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movements of individuals remain unknown. Greater anal gland marking activities in larger males may suggest territoriality and intolerance towards other males. Individuals have been observed regularly from a very restricted area during two years, but home range size and seasonal variation in habitat use are unknown. Given the large size and diet specialization of the species, density per km? is expected to be low.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCNRed List because assumed to have undergone a decline of 20-25% overthe past 15 years, mainly due to the widespread impact of bushmeat hunting. Some local populations seem stable, however, including those of the Ituri Forest and the Salonga National Park in the DR Congo. Widely distributed, but localized and often rare. Very rarely recorded in international trade. Although strictly protected in several countries, heavily hunted for bushmeat consumption and traditional medicine, a situation aggravated by continuous deforestation of its primary habitat in West and Central Africa. Especially appreciated for its tender dark meat, notably in Central Africa. Believed to have gone extinct in Rwanda. Occupies a particular place culturally with rainforest tribes because of its intermediary status between fish and tetrapods. In north-eastern DR Congo, it is notably celebrated in rites marking transition stages such as men’s circumcision, with initiator’s headdress evoking pangolin scaling. Sacred in eastern DR Congo, where it is killed ritually and revered for having taught humans to roof houses; roofs are built with leaves disposed in a way that looks like pangolin scaling. Could locally be protected as a totemic species, as in Uganda, but such customs tend to disappear.</p> <p>Bibliography. Botha &amp; Gaudin (2007), Doran &amp; Allbrook (1973), Dupuy (1968), Hatt (1934), Hoffmann (2008b), Jentink (1882), Jones (1973), Jouffroy (1966), Kingdon (1997), Lewis (1991), Pagés (1970), Poche (1973), Sayer &amp; Green (1984).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF5FF88E243F3BDC224F904	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF4FF8BE2E0F95CC7D8F33C.text	EC7D87A1FFF4FF8BE2E0F95CC7D8F33C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis temminckii Smuts 1832	<div><p>6.</p> <p>Ground Pangolin</p> <p>Manis temminckii</p> <p>French: Pangolin de Temminck / German: Steppenschuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin terrestre</p> <p>Other common names: Temminck’s Pangolin, Cape Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis temminckii Smuts, 1832,</p> <p>Latakou (= Litakun), near Kuruman, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the genus/subgenus Smutsia. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Widely but patchily distributed in open areas ranging from E Chad and N Central African Republic to extreme W Ethiopia, then south through most of E Africa to N South Africa, Namibia, and C Angola.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 45-55 cm, tail 40-52 cm; weight 5-17 kg (but specimens above 20 kg have been reported). A round shield-shaped pangolin with broad scales. There is a linear correlation between body weight and total body length. One pair of pectoral mammae. Adult males larger than females and up to twice as heavy. Head conical and rostrum thin and shorter than in the Giant Pangolin (M. gigantea), giving a V-shape to the head in dorsal view. Nose pad color similar to the brown skin (may reach dark purple). Auditory orifice without ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Massive scaled armor covering the upper face and the whole body except the belly and innerside of legs; skin and scales constitute one-fourth to one-third of total body mass. Hairs brown rufous, very thin and short on belly (less than 0-3 cm); very sparsely distributed on other skin surfaces. No hairs project between scales. 13 dorsal scale rows. Scales on the distal part of the body at least twice as wide as the first rows of post-scapular scales; from base to tip, scales show a longitudinal, rufous brown to golden color gradient. Scales three-cusped; the main, distal cusp is still visible in old adults, despite general abrasion. Tail shorter than head and body. On tail, medio-dorsal row of scales interrupted half way to tip; injuveniles and subadults, posterior margin is three-cusped (can also be observed on back), whereas cusps—and original shape—tend to disappear with age because of natural abrasion. Ventral part of tail concave, entirely covered by scales. Legs massive, especially hindlegs. Forelegs much shorter than hindlegs. Five long and slightly curved claws on forefeet, especially the third one; walk with weight on outer edge of claws, with claws facing backwards. The five claws on hindfeet kept shorter by soil abrasion (plantigrade posture) than in arboreal species; hind claws only slightly curved. Skull reaching 7.5-9 cm long, pear-shaped, and shorter than in Giant Pangolin. 19-21 caudal vertebrae.</p> <p>Habitat. Various types of woodlands and savannas, often with dense undergrowth (e.g. bushveld and thornbush, in southern Africa). Can also be found in floodplain grassland and farmed areas, except in eastern Africa. May reach elevations up to 1700 m. Range of suitable niche likely conditioned by the abundance of specific groups of termites and ants preyed upon, which may explain its absence in north-eastern and western Africa. Not presentin forested areas of high rainfall, where the Giant Pangolin lives. Often lives near water sources.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Almost strictly myrmecophagous; genera preyed upon include Acantholepis, Anoplepsis, Camponotus, Crematogaster, Monsmorium, Myrmicania, Paltothyreus, Pheidole, Polyrhachis, Tapenonian, Technomyremex, Xiphomyremex (ants), and to a lesser extent, Odontotermes, Microcerotermes, Microtermes, Amitermes and Ancistotermes (termites). May be locally highly selective on species ingested; prefers eggs and larvae, probably because they are softer. Larvae of dung beetles can also be eaten. Macrosmatic, continuously sniffing while foraging; search for food is generally nocturnal, but can become diurnal depending on the activity cycles of prey. Opportunistic foraging, searching ground litter and soil fissures for ants and termites; digging to reach prey is not as frequent and deep as in other terrestrial pangolins. Mounds of termites and ants are opened using its powerful forefoot claws, notably the third one. Holes, tunnels, and fissures are sniffed and the sticky tongueis inserted where a large quantity of prey is located. Ant and termite colonies, which are not completely destroyed, usually recover well from raids of the Ground Pangolin. Sometimes also takes pieces of mound, wood, or dung in its forefeet and rolls onto its back to catch prey while manipulating the item. A series of nights is spent foraging in an area of several kilometers, for up to six hours a night, before moving to another area. Feces are dark, sausage-shaped, and have a strong smell; they contain a lot of soil and chitinous remains of prey. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. The tongue reaches 25-40 cm long and 5 mm wide; when feeding, 10-15 cm are protracted and retracted from a pouch located within the throat (similarly to the Giant Pangolin). The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous saliva secreted by large pharyngeal and cervical salivary glands that extend almost to the shoulder. The thin, flat mandibles and weak temporo-mandibular joints seriously limit jaw movements. The tongue is attached ventral to the larynx and trachea, to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). Xiphoid cartilages form two elongated bars that extend from sternum to pelvic region.</p> <p>Breeding. Males have testes in a fold of skin located in the groin (i.e. not descended into a scrotum). Exact breeding season not clearly delimited. Tails of male and female are entwined when copulating. Gestation takes about 130-150 days. Fetuses of ¢. 8 g and 110 g were found in pregnant females in May and July, respectively; no pregnant females were observed between December and February. A single young is born per year, although twins have been reported. At birth, measures 15-18 cm and weighs 340-425 g; eyes are open. From around four weeks, carried clinging to mother’s back or tail (slipping onto her belly when in danger), and can start ingesting living prey. Young is carried until it reaches c. 3 kg. Females mate while nursing young. In captivity, females were seen protecting their offspring through bipedal attack; at rest, young is held close to belly and curled under mother’s tail as a protection.</p> <p>Activity patterns. A poorly known species. Solitary, terrestrial, and mostly nocturnal. Activity starts late in the afternoon or at dusk, and the pangolins forage all night, sometimes until morning. During the day, they opportunistically rest in terrestrial shelters, termite mounds, or Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and spring hare (Pedetes spp.) burrows, preferably connected to ant or termite colonies; they rarely dig their own burrows. Typical burrows have a 20-25 cm diameter entrance and 3-5 m long horizontal tunnels, c. 1 m below entrance level. The same burrow is occupied several days in a row, and then left for another one. Can walk quadrupedally or bipedally. In quadrupedal walk, feet alternate and tail drags discontinuously on the ground. Bipedal walk is often used when foraging, with tail maintained above the ground for balance and forelegs held in a kangaroo-like carriage. Pelvis is more vertical and tuber coxae more prominent than in other pangolins, allowing regular use of bipedal walk. Sleeps curled up with scales open; when disturbed, scales are pulled down with much force. When walking, reacts to alarming noise by putting head between hindlegs, so to present the dorsal part of the scaled armoras a first defensive posture. In case of imminent danger, rolls into a ball. A female was observed lying on her back in the shade, exposing her belly moistened by urine to cool down body temperature. Capable of climbing, helped by the lateral, sharp scales ofthe tail. Can create a depression on the ground to collect rainwater by gyrating backwards in a tightcircle.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movements of individuals remain unknown. Marks rocks with urine. Density in Kruger National Park (South Africa) was estimated at 0-24 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List because widespread, locally abundant, protected, and distributed in numerous protected areas. Nevertheless, likely to decline locally because of hunting, pesticides— to which it is extremely sensitive—and electric fences. Hunted for meat and scales. Scales are exported from Maputaland (South Africa) to Mozambique for traditional clothing. In East Africa, burning scalesis believed to keep lions away. In Tanzania, the Ground Pangolin is named “Bwana mganga” (doctor), each portion ofits body having specific healing power. In Zimbabwe, seeing a Ground Pangolin is a good omen and it is traditional to offerit to local or spiritual authorities. Supposed to be close to extinction in Orange Free State (South Africa) and probably exterminated in several parts ofits range.</p> <p>Bibliography. Botha &amp; Gaudin (2007), van Ee (1966), Heath (1992b), Heath &amp; Coulson (1997, 1998), Hoffmann (2008c), Jacobsen et al. (1991), Kingdon (1997), Kyle (2000), Stuart (1980).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF4FF8BE2E0F95CC7D8F33C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF7FF8AE746F28BC08CFA0A.text	EC7D87A1FFF7FF8AE746F28BC08CFA0A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis tetradactyla Linnaeus 1766	<div><p>7.</p> <p>Long-tailed Pangolin</p> <p>Manis tetradactyla</p> <p>French: Pangolin a longue queue / German: Langschwanzschuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin colilargo</p> <p>Other common names: Black-bellied Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis tetradactyla Linnaeus, 1766,</p> <p>West Africa.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the genus/subgenus Uromanis. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. W &amp; C African rainforest blocks, from Sierra Leone to Ghana, and from Niger Delta to Congo Basin, as far as C &amp; E DR Congo. Presence in NW Angola (Cabinda) is possible.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 30-40 cm, tail 55-70 cm; weight 2.3-5 kg. A small, golden-scaled and black-bellied pangolin, with a very long tail. One pair of pectoral mammae. Sexual dimorphism unknown. Head conical and rostrum thin and short, giving a V-shape to the head in dorsal view. Nose pad color similar to the dark skin. Auditory orifice without ear pinna. Eyes small and iris dark. Scaled armor with large scales covering the upper face and the whole body, except the belly, the upper foreand hindfeet, and the inner side of legs. Hairs dark brown to black, thin and very long (between 0-5 cm and 1 cm), densely covering all the naked surfaces; no hairs projecting between scales. 13 dorsal scale rows. Width of scales of the distal part of the body similar to that of first rows of post-scapular scales; from base to tip, each scale shows a longitudinal, dark to golden color gradient. Two pairs of post-scapular scales very large, covering the upper forelegs. Tail much longer than head and body. On tail, medio-dorsal row of scales interrupted before tip. Ventral part oftail showing a large, terminal skin pad, due to the absence of two median and two lateral scales. Forelegs slightly shorter than hindlegs. Five short and curved claws on forefeet, with the third claw at least twice as long as the others; walks with wrist folded, with claws perpendicular to ground. The five claws on hindfeet are markedly curved and kept longer than in terrestrial species. Skull 6-7 cm long, V-shaped. Number of caudal vertebrae: 50.</p> <p>Habitat. Tropical, riparian, and swamp forests, always close to permanent water. Can be considered semi-aquatic. Such habitat specialization may be exacerbated by sympatry with the Common African Pangolin (M. tricuspis). In the Niger Delta, reported from secondary and altered rainforests.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Probably strictly myrmecophagous; genera preyed upon are arboreal ants (Crematogaster and Cataulacus). In captivity, does not usually accept termites. Ants are eaten on trees. Tree nests are broken or taken down with forefoot claws, and attacked from all sides, until ants fall down; a tunnel may be dug inside the nests. Nests generally are not destroyed, and thus constitute continuous feeding sources that are visited regularly. Uses olfaction to forage, and extracts ants using the protractile part of the tongue (16-18 cm long). Distal part of the tongue is different from that of M. tricuspus: it is flattened, not pointed, and has an oval cross-section; it has a zone of 4 cm covered with bristles 1 mm long, pointing backwards. The tongue is attached behind the larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). Xiphoid cartilages form two elongated bars that extend from the sternum to the pelvic region.</p> <p>Breeding. Breeding is non-seasonal and apparently continuous. Sexual behavioris extremely elaborate. Preliminaries simulate aggression, chest against chest, followed by female’s submission. The female then clings on the tail of the male (like a young to its mother), and the couple moves to a tree before mating. Tails of male and female are entwined when copulating. Female conceives again within two weeks after birth. Gestation period is around 140 days; placentation is endotheliochorial. A single young is born; stays in a tree hole during the first week, before clinging to mother’s back or tail to get carried. Starts ingesting living prey at about two weeks. Leaves mother at next birth, and wanders for 4-5 months before settling into its own area.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, almost strictly arboreal and diurnal. Adults rest in tree hollows and use habitual trails to move; they seem to have a fixed home range, with a series of shelters used in alternation. Younger individuals are wanderers, with no predefined routes; they do not use shelters to rest, but instead simply roll up on branches. If resting in a tree is impossible, an individual may dig a simple, horizontal den in talus. In captivity, observed spending more time above the ground than M. tricuspis; the proportion of arboreal activity reached almost 100% during courtship. Moves slowly. Frequently uses the caterpillar-like walk, with forelegs moving forward and subsequently joined by hindlegs, the pangolin successively arching and stretching its back. This walk is notably used when running. In case of danger, runs away with nose kept close to ground to scent the trail. When running after a congener or following its tracks, rubs its anal glands on supports leaving odoriferous marks. When attacking a congener (especially between males), caterpillar-like walk turns into a series ofjumps forward, the animal standing and pushing on hindlegs; the same behavior has been observed when moving through high grasses. The caterpillar-like walk is also used when moving on 5-20 cm diameter branches: foreand hindlegs are used as clamps, with claws jabbing at branches. Uses the diagonal walk (similarly to M. tricuspis) when moving on terminal, thin branches and creepers, hanging by its claws in a sloth-like manner. Climbing is facilitated by very flexible feet on the vertical axis—butless in torsion (i.e. no supination)—and the sharp, curved claws. Forefoot digits two and three not completely fused so they can spread to hold small branches. The long neck and supple body make the animal reptile-like when using diagonal walk. Can slip into openings 5 cm wide and then enlarge the entrance by powerfully moving the body. Long, prehensile tail with a highly sensitive distal pad, used like a third hindleg. The tail coils tightly thanks to the pangolin’s strong trunk and tail muscles. When climbing large and/or smooth trunks, the tail is curled around the trunk, the animal progressing in a spiral. The scales, large and spread, cling to the uneven surface of the tree. The tip of the tail is also curled around branches and used as a pivot to move from branch to branch ortree to tree. When in danger on the ground, the Long-tailed Pangolin looks for a tree it can climb to an unreachable height. Otherwise, it rolls into a ball, with the tip of the tail folded up onto the scales of the neck, locked into a defensive position.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The least frequently recorded of African pangolins, although a very specialized mode oflife may be responsible for its apparent low density. Movements of individuals remain unknown. Extremely secretive, well camouflaged in the foliage with its scales that imitate the effect of sunlight on leaves, and endemic to little penetrated habitats. The sole pangolin to be considered semi-aquatic. Frequently travels in streams and inundated areas. Good swimmer, using undulating (snake-like) movements, with tail playing a prominent role for the locomotion in water. Body halfimmersed due to ingestion of extra air while swimming, body diameter increasing by more than 10 cm; breathes regularly at the surface, head position alternating under and above water. After leaving water, emits a trumpet-like sound, emptying extra air from nose and probably anus. When moving, follows trails marked by urine and secretions from anal scent glands; these latter are also expelled to discourage predators. Communication among individuals is mainly olfactory. Perianal glands are involved in marking, sexual, and aggressive behavior, whereas anal glands play a role in marking and repulsive behavior. Olfactory marking permits longdistance regulation of interindividual contacts.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List because ofits large distribution, presumably healthy populations, presence in several protected areas, and secretive mode oflife. In addition, its confinement to inaccessible habitats likely spares the species from intense bushmeat activities and forest logging. Nevertheless, requires further monitoring given its poorly known natural history and the existence of local, selective hunting for meat consumption and traditional medicine. In Cameroon, sold on bushmeat markets as a rare item under the name “Pangolin sorcier” (pangolin sorcerer).</p> <p>Bibliography. Angelici et al. (1999, 2001), Botha &amp; Gaudin (2007), Hatt (1934), Heath &amp; Amachree (1967), Hoffmann (2008d), Jouffroy et al. (1975), Kingdon (1997), Pages (1970, 1972a), Rahm (1956).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF7FF8AE746F28BC08CFA0A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
EC7D87A1FFF6FF85E7EAFA5EC25EFC27.text	EC7D87A1FFF6FF85E7EAFA5EC25EFC27.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Manis tricuspis Rafinesque 1821	<div><p>8.</p> <p>Common African Pangolin</p> <p>Manis tricuspis</p> <p>French: Petit Pangolin / German: Weilbauchschuppentier / Spanish: Pangolin arboricola</p> <p>Other common names: African White-bellied Pangolin, African Tree Pangolin, Three-cusped Pangolin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Manis tricuspis Rafinesque, 1821,</p> <p>“ Guinée ”, West Africa.</p> <p>Sometimes included in the genus/subgenus Phataginus. Subspecies mabirae from Uganda described by G.M. Allen &amp; Loveridge in 1942, sometimes considered valid. However, the important level of morphological variation within the species seems to preclude any subspecific delimitation, pending more detailed investigations. This species is considered monotypic here.</p> <p>Distribution. Continuous distribution in W &amp; C African rainforest blocks also including Dahomey Gap and Bioko I; reaches as easternand southernmost boundaries SW Kenya, extreme W Tanzania, NW Zambia, and N Angola.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-43 cm,tail 35-62 cm; weight 1.6-3 kg. The lightestweight pangolin, with little, three-cusped, pine cone-like scales. One pair of pectoral mammae. Males usually larger than females. Head conical and rostrum thicker than in the Long-tailed Pangolin (M. tetradactyla), giving a more massive aspect to the nose. Nose pad color similar to the brownish skin (may reach beige). Auditory orifice without ear pinna. Eyes small but protruded; iris dark. Scaled armor with relatively small scales covering the upper face and the whole body, except the belly, the upper foreand hindfeet, and the innerside of legs. Hairs whitish on belly and throat, and brownish on legs; thin and very long (0.5-1 cm), densely imbedded. No hairs project ing between scales. 19-25 dorsal scale rows. Scales longer than wide. Width of scales of the distal part of the body similar to that of first rows of post-scapular scales; scales uniformly colored, from brownish-gray to rufous and yellowish-brown. Scales threecusped; the main, distal cusp is still visible in old adults, despite abrasion. Tail slightly longer than head and body. On tail, medio-dorsal row of scales interrupted before tip. Ventral part oftail has a large, terminal skin pad, due to the absence of two median and two lateral scales. Forelegs slightly shorter than hindlegs. Five short and curved claws on forefeet, with the third claw at least twice as long as the others; walks with wrist folded up, with claws perpendicular to ground. The five claws on the hindfeet are markedly curved and longer than in terrestrial species. Skull 6-8 cm long, V-shaped. 40-42 caudal vertebrae.</p> <p>Habitat. Rainforests, savanna/forest mosaics and woodlands. Also present in humanmodified habitats, including secondary growth in oil palm groves, teak plantations, fallows, and secondary rainforest.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Myrmecophagous: mostly terrestrial termites (Microcerotermes, but also Nasutitermes), and to a lesser extent, ants (Camponotus, Cataulcus, Dorylus, Myrmecaria, Oceophylla, and Crematogaster). Most foraging is on the ground (especially in males and subadults), but arboreal mounds can also be targeted. Excellent sense of smell, and uses its protractile tongue to forage. Frequently inspects rotten branches and trunks, preys being ingested on ground or in leaf litter. Tail can be used to keep prey within a reachable range. Tree nests are broken or taken down with forefoot claws, and attacked from all sides, until ants fall down; several holes may be dug inside the nests. Nests are generally not destroyed, and thus are continuous feeding sources that are visited regularly. Foraging is mostly nocturnal, following activity cycles of prey. Females feed in a few hundred meter zone for 3-4 hours a night, whereas males forage at longer distances for 5-6 hours. The lingual system is dramatically adapted to preying on ants and termites. The tongue is covered with colorless, viscous saliva secreted by submandibular glands. With its numerous sensory terminations and a large, terminal organ similar to a pressure receptor, the tongue is very sensitive to touch. It literally acts as a “protrude and withdraw” touch organ; gustative function is expected to be minor given the small number of taste buds. The flat mandible and weak temporomandibular joints, coupled with an almost total absence of masticatory muscles, give limited movements to the jaw. The fused area of the mandibles forms a flat surface where the tongue can slip; lateral tongue muscles are attached to ridges inside the jaw. The tongue reaches 30 cm long. It is attached behind the larynx and trachea to a characteristically modified xiphisternum (xiphoid process). Xiphoid cartilages form two elongated bars that pass through the iliac fossa and then curve dorso-laterally to end as a spatula in the right crus of diaphragm. The xiphisternum provides the necessary attachments to the complex system of glossal protrudor and retractor muscles of the tongue. The hyoid bone has a different role than in other mammals, since it helps remove termites and ants from the tongue at the entrance to the esophagus. A transverse fibrous septum in the tongueitself attaches to the lingual muscles. The first one-third of the tongue is loosely attached and partly folded in the cervical region. The tongue has a cavernous tissue, also found in other mammals requiring little or no mastication, which may affect or control the level of rigidity ofits rostral part. In the stomach, a rough endoplasmic reticulum in the cytoplasm of secretory cells contributes to secreting pepsin that digests protein from prey. The epithelial lining of cardia and fundus is modified into a stratified, squamous, and keratinized epithelium to manage the chitinous load.</p> <p>Breeding. Males cross several females’ ranges every night, checking estrous periods from their scenttrails. Males have testes in a fold of skin located in the groin (i.e. not descended into a scrotum). Sexual behavior is extremely elaborate. Preliminaries are simulated aggression, chest against chest, followed by the female’s submission. The female then clings to the tail of the male (like a young to its mother), and the couple moves to a tree before mating. Tails of male and female are entwined when copulating. Mean estrous cycle is nine days, with extreme individual variations (3-29 days). A single embryo develops in one of the bicornuate uterine horns. Gestation takes about 150 days; a single young is born. In captivity (Nigeria), births were reported in November and December; young weighed c. 100 g, were born with eyes open and were active. Young stopped suckling after around four months, and weighed 750 g by seven and a half months. Maternal care is limited. Postpartum estrus happens 9-16 days after birth, after the most intense phase of maternal care and before the young pangolin starts accompanying its mother, clinging to her tail. Young is expelled by mother at next parturition, after 4-5 months. Young then goes through a period of wandering that lasts until sexual maturity, at about eight months old. Full adult size and behavior (fixed range and mating) are not reached before 15 months.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Solitary, nocturnal, and semi-arboreal. Able to move from canopy to ground. Less specialized than other African forest pangolins. Mostly rests in tree hollows or piles of creepers, 10-15 m high. In Benin, shelters were mostly found in natural forest trees, preferably in velvet tamarin (Dialium guineense) and kapok (Ceiba pentandra), despite important foraging activities in human-altered zones (teak plantations). Shelters can also be found on the ground, in self-dug shallow borrows (30-40 cm deep). Terrestrial and arboreal mounds are also used as shelters. Starting period of activity is variable, from 18:00 h to after midnight. Females use a series of shelters, each for several days; when changing shelters, their range limits are also redefined. Males change shelter almost every night. Females are active for a brief 3-4 h period, and do not walk more than 600 m per night; resting sites are close to each other (less than 300 m in Gabon). Males may be active for more than ten hours and may walk 1-8 km. The period of activity is drastically shortened during the rainy season, mainly because prey become much more abundant. The Common African Pangolin has two ways of walking. The diagonal walk is the most frequently used, during which the animal moves at a mean speed of 1-1-5 km/h. A caterpillar-like walk can also be used. When moving rapidly, the tail is lifted up. Body temperature is 31-32°C during the day, below the usual mammalian range. Temperature varies from 28°C to 36°C with variation in external temperature, so thermoregulation can be considered imperfect. Thyroid gland is hypoactive in adult Common African Pangolins. Tail is long and prehensile, with a highly sensitive distal pad, used like a fifth leg. When climbing large and/or smooth trunks, the tail is curled up around the trunk and the animal spirals up, the scales, large and spread, holding onto the rough surface. The tail is also curled around branches to hold on and is used as a pivot to move between branches or trees. When in danger on the ground, the pangolins look for trees to climb, or roll into a ball, with the tip of the tail folded up on the scales of the neck, locking themselves into a defensive position. Most predation occurs on the ground, by Leopards (Panthera pardus), chimpanzees (Pan spp.), and humans. Scales are smaller and appearless protective than in other African pangolins.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The most abundant of African forest pangolins. Adults are sedentary; ranges are notstrictly delimited, and can change from time to time. Newly weaned subadults have an amoeboid range, promoting contacts with congeners; they gradually explore farther before establishing their own range, when they weigh more than 1 kg. Males and females have overlapping home ranges of 3—4 ha and 30 ha, respectively. Males may move about 1 km each night, a small distance compared to the vastness of their ranges; in Gabon, several months of survey were needed to estimate their full ranges. Social relationships appear limited. Despite the existence of large overlapping zones in nature, territoriality seems exacerbated in males (an individual can kill another in captivity). However, olfactory markings and established hierarchy are likely to permit non-lethal regulation of contacts among males. Scent trails allow females to avoid contact with other females. In both sexes, individuals’ shelters may be very close, but never used at the same time. One male’s range may overlap with ten females’ ranges. Males tolerate females crossing their ranges, but drive away their dispersing offspring. A ventral, epidermal depression (pseudocloaca) contains the genital organs and anus, with perianal glands opening at the skin surface. The perineal glands are used in marking, sexual, and aggressive behavior, whereas the perianal glands (corresponding to epidermic bags) play a role in marking and territorial behavior. Able swimmer, using body undulation. Body almost completely above water, due to ingestion of extra air while swimming, with tail hitting the water regularly. Body diameter increased by up to 11 cm. After leaving water, emits a trumpetlike sound, emptying out extra air from nose and probably anus. In the Lama forest (Benin), density during the dry season was estimated at 0-84 ind/km?.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List because likely to have undergone a decline of 20-25% over the past 15 years, mainly due to the unsustainable level of bushmeat hunting (the species is considered close to the Threatened category). Despite its presence in a number of protected areas throughout its range, it is heavily hunted for bushmeat consumption and traditional medicine (healing/magic properties, especially ofits scales), a situation aggravated by continuous deforestation of its primary habitat in West and Central Africa. Especially appreciated for its tender dark meat, notably in Central Africa. Occupies a particular place in rainforest tribes’ mythology because of its intermediary status between fish and tetrapods. In north-eastern DR Congo, it is notably considered a “correspondent” between humans and spirits. Enforcement of protective legislation is needed in several countries to avoid local extinctions.</p> <p>Bibliography. Akpona et al. (2008), Bureau et al. (1974), Doran &amp; Allbrook (1973), Fa et al. (2006), Hatt (1934), Hoffmann (2008a), Jones (1973), Julian &amp; Menzies (1968), Kingdon (1997), Lewis (1991), Menzies (1967), Ofusori &amp; Caxton-Martins (2008), Ofusori, Caxton-Martins et al. (2008), Ofusori, Enaibe et al. (2008), Pages (1968, 1970, 1972a, 1972b, 1975), Pobiner et al. (2007), Rahm (1956), Sodeinde &amp; Adedipe (1994), Soewu &amp; Ayodele (2009), Stanley &amp; Foley (2008), Tahiri (1966), Tahiri-Zagret (1966, 1968a, 1968b, 1969), Tahiri-Zagret &amp; Maillet (1968).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/EC7D87A1FFF6FF85E7EAFA5EC25EFC27	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Manidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 82-103, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5720458
