taxonID	type	description	language	source
039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.taxon	vernacular_names	(BEARS)	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.taxon	diagnosis	• Large mammals with big head and thick neck, small eyes, rounded ears, no facial vibrissae; muscular bodies with stout legs, large paws, and short tail. • 100 - 280 cm.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.taxon	distribution	• Holarctic, Neotropical, and Oriental regions.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66BC76697F97D56F983FA82.taxon	diagnosis	• Forested environments (boreal, temperate, and tropical) to tundra and semi-desert; one species in Arctic. • 5 genera, 8 species, at least 44 extant taxa. • 1 species Endangered, 5 Vulnerable; 2 subspecies Extinct since 1600.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	materials_examined	Sichuan Province, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	discussion	Previously included in genus Ursus. Once placed in a separate family, morphological and molecular evidence now strongly supports placement in Ursidae. No subspecies yet recognized, although one population in Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, shows differences in cranial and dental morphology, pelage characteristics, and genetics indicative of isolation for several thousand years, and a subspecies designation (ginlingensis) has been proposed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	distribution	Distribution. C China (Sichuan, Gansu & Shaanxi Provinces).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 120 - 180 cm, tail 10 - 16 cm; males weigh 85 - 125 kg (sometimes exceeding 150 kg in captivity), about 10 - 20 % more than females, which weigh 70 - 100 kg. Stocky, barrel-shaped body, large forelimbs, wide massive head with short muzzle and erect ears (10 cm). Hairs are coarse and oily. Specific name melanoleuca refers to distinctive black and white color pattern, which is unique among mammals. Face is white with an oblong black patch around each eye, black ears, and a black nose. Forelegs are black, continuing up over shoulders with a narrower band across the back. Hindlegs below the hips are also black. The remainder of the body, including the tail, is white. Occasionally, individuals may have more brown than black coloration. Forepaws are modified with a greatly enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which functions as a sixth digit for grasping bamboo. This “ false thumb ” is nearly equal in size to the metacarpal bones of the five true digits, and has its own pad that opposes the first digit, although it cannot be moved like an independent thumb. Bamboo is held within the haired furrow between the digits and plantar (palmar) pad, which can be tightly flexed. The Giant Panda’s generic name, meaning panda foot, derives from the foot’s likeness to the structure and function of the foot of the Red Panda, a bamboo-eater that was discovered and named earlier. Claws are short, both front and rear.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1200 - 4100 m, or more typically 1500 - 3000 m. Bamboo is a dominant understory plant in broad-leaved, broad-leaved mixed with conifer, and subalpine conifer forests in the mountainous regions of central China. However, the type and density of bamboo greatly affect habitat use by Giant Pandas. The growth rate of bamboo, and hence its suitability to Pandas, is also related to the amount of overstory tree canopy. Remaining habitat for Pandas is steep and rugged, being the only land that was not farmed and settled by people in a once-extensive range that extended from Beijing to eastern China and south to present day Vietnam and Myanmar. Within this remaining habitat, Pandas seek areas with relatively gentle slopes and high moisture.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Their diet is almost entirely bamboo (over 99 %); however, they occasionally feed on leaves, stems or roots of other plants as well as some meat, from rodents and young ungulates, either killed or scavenged. During large-scale flowering and die-off of bamboo, individuals may seek other foods, including crops and human garbage. For unknown reasons, some individuals do this even when bamboo is readily available. Across the six mountain ranges that they inhabit, Giant Pandas utilize over 60 species of bamboo, 35 of which constitute their main food source. They select species higher in protein and lower in fiber, hence more digestible. They use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying with the seasons and coinciding with the germination and growth of the plants. They eat different parts of bamboo at different times of year, alternating between young tender leaves and shoots, versus stems and branches. They prefer shoots and stems of certain lengths and diameters, selecting those that are easier to hold and chew. Pandas sit or recline to eat. Holding a stem in one paw, a Panda inserts it in the side of its mouth and repeatedly and rapidly bites off chunks approximately the width of its palate, chewing very little. Scats of any individual Panda thus have intact fragments of bamboo that are all approximately the same length. This characteristic has been exploited in population surveys, where the size of bamboo fragments in scats is used to differentiate individuals with overlapping home ranges.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Pandas are active about 50 % of the day, mostly collecting or eating bamboo. Activity occurs rather uniformly through the day and night, in bursts of a few hours. Little variation occurs seasonally. Unlike other bears, which exhibit an energymaximizing strategy, increasing consumption and activity when food is most plentiful, Pandas are least active when feeding on abundant and nutritious leaves. Because food is available throughout the year, Pandas do not hibernate, although during cold and snowy conditions they may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices, and caves. They climb trees, although infrequently, to escape danger, to rest, or in courtship — during the mating season males may vocalize from trees to attract females, and estrous females may climb to fend off suitors. However, they spend less time in trees than several other species of bears (Andean Bears, Sun Bears, Asiatic Black Bears) because they do not feed there.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Individuals have home ranges of 1 - 60 km?, averaging 5 - 15 km? depending on gender and habitat. Range size changes seasonally, and they make seasonal elevational shifts (sometimes referred to as vertical migrations), which vary by area, corresponding with growth patterns of various kinds of bamboo. Typically they descend to lower elevations during winter, to escape deep snow, and to high elevations in summer. They can move several hundred meters in elevation in just a few days. Home ranges overlap, but pandas may remain in smaller core areas of only about 30 ha for half their time; these core ranges overlap little among animals of the same sex, but adult males overlap the core ranges of several females. Communication and spacing appears to be maintained by extensive scent marking, using secretions from anogenital glands. Secretions are often deposited on stumps, logs or trees along prominent ridges. One study used fecal genetics to investigate relatedness of Pandas living in the same vicinity, and inferred that, unlike all other bears, females rather than males disperse from their natal area. In another study, two radio-collared males settled near their mother, whereas two young females dispersed. As Panda range has expanded, several young, apparently dispersing females have appeared in several new areas, including a large city.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating occurs from March through May. Vocalizations (bleating, chirping) and scent marking are used to attract mates. Pairs may remain together for days or weeks prior to mating. Both sexes may mate with multiple (3 - 5) partners. Peak estrus lasts less than one week. Females use rock dens or hollow trees for birthing. Cubs are born in August or September, 3 - 5 - 5 months after mating; a variable period of delayed implantation accounts for the variability in total gestation. At 80 - 200 grams, the infant at birth is only about 0 - 1 % of the mother’s weight, one-third to one-quarter that of other bears. Infants are born pink in color, with short, sparse white hair; the typical black and white pelage is achieved by three weeks of age. Litter size at birth is often two, generally born about two hours (but up to 36 hours) apart; however, the mother raises just the first born, if it is healthy. Thus, functional litter size in the wild is only one. In captivity, females can be fooled into raising two cubs by switching them every twelve hours. This is the only species of bear to regularly give birth to more cubs than it can raise — the explanation for this unusual reproductive strategy remains elusive. Also, unusual for bears, Panda mothers change dens multiple times, carrying their cub in their mouth, and also periodically leave the den to feed. During the birthing process they only fast for 2 - 3 weeks. Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders. This impression stemmed from the previous low reproductive performance of captive animals, now known to have resulted from inadequate captive conditions. Studies of wild Pandas indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to some other species of bears, with cub production beginning at 5 - 7 years and inter-litter intervals of two or three years. Breeding continues into the early- 20 s, so a female could wean six or more cubs in her lifetime.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F669C76495967D54F612F287.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Panda is considered a threatened and precious species in China. They are also listed as Endangered under the USA Endangered Species Act, thereby regulating import of captive animals into the USA. Their total population in the wild has been estimated at less than 2000, but this may be revised as better methodology is developed for estimating numbers (e. g. using DNA in their feces to identify individuals). They are a Category I species (maximum level of protection) under the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law. A national conservation plan, adopted by the Chinese government in 1992, guides conservation initiatives for this species. Intentional poaching of Pandas has been largely curtailed by severe penalties and increased patrolling in their remaining habitats. Markets for their skins have virtually disappeared, and other body parts are not used in traditional Chinese medicine. However, they are still sometimes killed in snares set for Musk Deer and other species. Limited and degraded habitat remains their greatest threat. The species only exists in portions of six mountain ranges separated by expanses of agriculture, and within these, inhabitable bamboo forests are separated by a patchwork of clearings and forested areas without bamboo. Conservation measures have included the establishment of a network of more than 60 Panda reserves, a ban on logging, and a policy that compensates farmers who convert agricultural fields on steep slopes to forest. However, small population size and restricted total range remains a threat to the viability of this species. A further threat relates to the panda’s reliance on bamboo for food. Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous flowering and dieoffs at intervals of 15 - 120 years, and the fragmented habitat restricts where Pandas can move when such die-offs occur. Effects of climate change on bamboo abundance and flowering cycles are as yet very uncertain. Captive breeding in China has now succeeded (with the aid of artificial insemination) to the extent that captive facilities will soon be overpopulated, providing a potential stock for augmenting wild Panda populations. However, the lack of suitable release sites — having adequate habitat but few resident pandas — Ilimits hopes of eventually releasing many of these captive Pandas into the wild.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	materials_examined	type specimen purportedly from northern Chile, but the species does not occur there.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	discussion	No subspecies have been designated, but substantial variation exists in color patterns within different portions of the range. Recent genetic examination in the northern part of the range indicates that gene flow is extremely low (populations are isolated), and that this situation predates the invasion of Europeans (i. e. it is not human-caused). Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Andes Mountains of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Boliva, with controversial evidence of existence in N Argentina.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 130 - 190 cm, tail less than 10 cm; weight of males 100 - 175 kg (rarely to 200 kg), females 60 - 80 kg. Coatis black or sometimes dark brown with creamy white biblike marking on chin, neck, and / or chest and typically some white markings around the muzzle and eyes. The extent of white markings is highly variable. Individuals with complete white circles around both eyes gave rise to the common name Spectacled Bear. However, many if not most do not have complete circles around both eyes; some have partial circles, some are highly asymmetrical, and some have virtually no facial markings or, conversely, an almost all buff-white face. The muzzle is variably-colored and short compared to the ursine bears. Claws are short on both front and rear feet. The underside of the feet have hair between the digital and plantar pads, but not between the plantar and carpal front pads (similar to Asiatic Black Bears).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Andean Bears range in elevation from 200 to over 4700 m. Preferred habitat includes various sorts of humid and very humid montane cloud forest. They also occupy higher elevation elfin forest, and puna and paramo (high-altitude) grasslands, as well as lower elevation thorn forest and scrub desert (in western Peru).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Omnivorous diet includes many kinds of fruits, vegetative material, and meat. Especially important through most parts of the range are the succulent parts of plants in the family Bromeliaceae, both epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads. In high altitude grasslands, the heart of the terrestrial Puya is a dietary mainstay, as this bromeliad is the only abundant food available for much of the year. The bears must strip away the stiff thorny leaves to get to the heart, which looks somewhat like a pineapple but is vegetative and bland. Bears may eat only one in ten of this obiquitous plant, possibly related to differences in nutritional composition. In the forest, they regularly climb trees to obtain Tillandsia, an epiphytic bromeliad; they eat the basal meristematic tissue and drop the remaining pieces of leaves to the forest floor, providing a highly visible sign of their feeding activity. Bears select patches (with Puya) or trees (with Tillandsia) that have a high density of large bromeliads. Bromeliads compose from 90 % to less than 15 % of their diet, depending on season and geographic area. Fruits compose the other core part of the diet, varying inversely to the bromeliads. Both shrub and tree-borne fruits are consumed (e. g. Lauraceae, Moraceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae). Fruit abundance varies seasonally with rainfall. Other foods include palm petioles, bamboo shoots, bulbs of orchids, and in drier habitats, fruits and pulp of cacti and, remarkably, the soft cortex of the pasallo tree (Bombax discolor). Near human settlements, they routinely raid cornfields. Animal matter is another potentially important food, although never a large dietary component. They eat insects, snails, and small mammals, but more significantly in terms of total nutrition, they occasionally take large mammals such as deer and free-ranging or unguarded pastured cattle. Considerable controversy has surrounded the issue of whether most meat in their diet is from animals that they killed or scavenged — there is clear evidence that they sometimes prey on cattle, but they probably also find carrion. A test of their attraction to beef demonstrated this: a small (0 - 5 kg) chunk of meat placed in an open area attracted two different radio-collared bears from a distance of 1 - 5 km in 5 - 15 hours. When feeding on a cattle carcass, which may take several days to consume, they often construct ground and tree nests for resting. Tree nests are made from a collection of bent and broken branches. They also sometimes build nests in fruit trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. In one high-elevation site in Bolivia, composed of mixed grassland and cloud forest, Andean Bears were entirely diurnal. They slept 9 - 12 hours at night, awoke near sunrise, took brief rests during the day, and began their night's rest just after sunset. This pattern did not vary seasonally. In other areas, bears are reported to be somewhat more active at night, but are still principally diurnal. Because food is available year-round throughout their range, Andean Bears do not hibernate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Limited information indicates that home ranges may be as small as 10 km? or as large as 150 km ®. Males have larger ranges than females, and ranges within and between sexes broadly overlap. They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal changes in available food resources. Andean Bears may gather at rich feeding areas (e. g. cornfields and cactus groves) and at waterholes in arid environments.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Presumed mating pairs have been seen between March and October; however, no real information is available on the normal timing of breeding of wild Andean Bears. In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere, births occur from December through February, coinciding with the timing of births in northern species of bears. However, in zoos in South America, Andean Bear births tend to occur more regularly during May-October. Anecdotal information on probable birthing dates in the wild is equivocal. Gestation periods in captivity range from 5 - 5 - 8 - 5 months, indicating a variable period of delayed implantation, and litter size is most commonly two. Litters in the wild are commonly one or two (but up to three or four). Females can produce cubs at two-year intervals, beginning at 4 - 7 years of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76595C87D56F6C0F96C.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Andean Bears are also protected by national legislation in each of the five range countries. However, loopholes in these laws and lack of adequate enforcement result in bears being killed while depredating crops or livestock, or poached for their parts. Andean Bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes, and live bears are also sometimes captured and sold. These problems are exacerbated by habitat loss and fragmentation, which not only reduces their natural foraging area, but also puts the bears in closer proximity to people, crops, and livestock. In a few select areas, management plans have been established, with community involvement, to ameliorate bear-human conflicts. A survey in 1998 revealed that less than 20 % of the range was legally protected as parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, additional protected areas have been created and others enlarged, but at the same time, more forested land outside the protected areas has been lost to agriculture or fragmented by road development, and mining activities. Some conservation organizations are working to maintain or establish corridors among populations, especially in the northern part of the range, where many Andean Bear populations are isolated in small to mediumsized patches. Habitat patches are larger in the southern part of the range (Peru, Bolivia). Valid rangewide or country-wide population estimates are lacking; guesstimates range from about 13,000 - 25,000. Efforts are underway to survey various parts of the range to obtain information on presence-absence and relative abundance, based on incidence of sign (bear trails, climbed or rubbed trees, tree nests, bed sites, feeding remains, scats).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	materials_examined	[presented orally in 1820, often incorrectly ascribed as 1821], Sumatra, Indonesia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	discussion	Cranial differences support separation into two subspecies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. H. m. malayanus Raffles, 1822 — Bangladesh, NE India, and S China (Yunnan) through SE Asia to Malaysia, and Sumatra. H. m. euryspilus Horsfield, 1825 — Borneo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 100 - 150 cm, tail 3 - 7 cm; weight 30 - 80 kg. Males are heavier than females, but the degree of sexual dimorphism (10 - 20 %) is less than most other bears. The Bornean subspeciesis notably smaller, with a maximum weight of 65 kg. The body is stocky, and compared to other bears, the front legs more bowed, front feet turned more inward, muzzle shortened, ears especially small, and hair very short, often with obvious whorls. Coat coloris black or less commonly dark brown, typically with a prominent white, yellow, or orange chest marking. The chest marking is highly variable among individuals, usually a U or circular shape, but occasionally more amorphous, and sometimes with dark patches or spots. The bear takes its common name from this marking, which may look like a sun. The muzzle is pale, and the forehead may be wrinkled. The exceptionally long tongue (20 - 25 cm) is used for feeding on insects and honey. The canine teeth, which are particularly large in relation to the head, and the large front feet with long claws, are used for breaking into wood (e. g. to prey on stingless bees) and termite colonies. Soles of the feet have little hair.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. In mainland South-east Asia, where there is a prolonged dry season, Sun Bears inhabit semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, and montane evergreen forest, largely sympatric with Asiatic Black Bears. In Borneo, Sumatra, and peninsular Malaysia, areas with high rainfall throughout the year, they inhabit mainly tropical evergreen dipterocarp rainforest and peat swamps. They also use mangrove forest and oil palm plantations in proximity to other, more favored habitats. They occur from near sea level to over 2100 m elevation, but are most common in lower elevation forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Omnivorous diet includes insects (over 100 species, mainly termites, ants, beetles and bees), honey, and a wide variety of fruits. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae (figs), Burseraceae and Myrtaceae make up more than 50 % of the fruit diet, but consumption of fruits from at least 20 other families of trees and lianas were identified in just one small study site (100 km?) in East Kalimantan. Availability of foods varies markedly from masting years when most species fruit synchronously, to inter-masting years when little fruit is available and the bears turn mainly to insects. Figs (Ficus) are a staple food during inter-mast periods. On the mainland, fruiting is more uniform (predictable) from year to year, but varies seasonally. However, there is an enormous diversity of fruits, so some fruit is available at all times of year. In Thailand, about 40 families of trees are climbed by Sun Bears, mostly for food; fruits from Lauraceae (cinnamon) and Fagaceae (oak) are favorites. Sun Bears are especially known for preying on colonies of stingless bees (7 Trigona), including their resinous nesting material. The bees form nests in cavities of live trees, so to prey on them Sun Bears chew and claw through the tree, leaving a conspicuous hole. These bears consume little vegetative matter, although they seem to relish the growth shoots of palm trees (palm hearts), the consumption of which kills the tree. Occasionally they also take reptiles, small mammals, and bird eggs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity has been described as mainly nocturnal or mainly diurnal. This variability depends on proximity to human activities: in heavily disturbed areas, such as oil palm plantations, Sun Bears are chiefly nocturnal. Camera traps along roads typically obtain photographs of bears mainly at night, whereas signals from radio-collared bears farther from roads indicate that they are active mainly during the day. They spend a large proportion of time feeding in trees when fruit is abundant. They also sometimes build tree nests of branches and leaves for sleeping. This behavior has been attributed to previous predation pressure by Tigers; however, it appears to occur commonly only in heavily-disturbed forests or near people. Sun Bears have been observed to slide rapidly down tree trunks when disturbed by people. Although arboreally adept, they cannot swing orjump from tree to tree. Normally they sleep on the ground, often in cavities of either standing or fallen trees, or under such trees. Females use similar sites for birthing dens. This species does not hibernate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home range information is very limited. Two males radio-tracked for about one year in Borneo during a fruiting failure had minimum known ranges of 15 - 20 km? (butlikely ranged beyond this); one of them centered his activity on a garbage dump. Two Bornean females living in a small, isolated forest patch (100 km? more than half of which had been burned in a forest fire and was rarely used by Sun Bears) had home ranges of only about 4 km ®. Most sightings have been ofsolitary bears or mothers with a cub, but gatherings of multiple bears have been witnessed at rich feeding sites.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. This is the only species of bear without an obvious breeding and birthing season. Cubs are born during all months, both in captivity and in the wild. However, data have not been collected across the range, so it is possible that greater reproductive seasonality occurs in areas with strongly seasonal environments. Females have four teats, but maximum observed litter size is two, and normal litter size is only one. Captive-born cubs have shown an unusual female bias. The gestation period in captivity is much shorter than in other bears: it is normally 3 - 3 - 5 months (indicating a shortened or nonexistent period of delayed implantation), but in a few odd cases stretched to 6 - 8 months, like most other bears. Mating in captivity occurs at 3 - 6 month intervals if pregnancy does not result. If cubs die, estrus reoccurs in 2 - 5 weeks, making the interbirth interval as short as 4 - 4 - 5 months. No information is available on normal cub dependency or intervals between litters in the wild. The earliest known age of estrus in the wild is three years old. Birthing takes place in a secluded den. In captivity, mothers sometimes carry their cub in their mouth, suggesting that bears in the wild may be able to move dens occasionally after the cub is born.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F668C76290B17702F8A9FE0F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Although quantitative estimates of population sizes and trends are lacking, rates of habitat loss and degradation, combined with persistent poaching, indicate that the global population ofthis species has declined by more than 30 % during the past three decades. Additionally, it is strictly protected under national wildlife laws throughout its range; however, there is generally insufficient enforcement of these laws. None of the eleven countries where the Sun Bear occurs has implemented any conservation measures specifically for this species. Commercial poaching, especially for gall bladders (used in traditional Chinese medicine) and paws (a delicacy), is a considerable threat, especially in mainland South-east Asia. Local hunters in one area of Thailand estimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of Sun Bears by 50 % in 20 years. In Malaysia and Indonesia, deforestation is the prime threat. Clear-cutting to expand oil palm (Elaeis guineenis) plantations (which is likely to worsen with increased biofuel production) and unsustainable logging (both legal and illegal) are escalating at alarming rates. Prolonged droughts, spurring natural and human-caused fires, are compounding the habitat-loss problem, resulting in diminished availability of food and space for bears, sometimes causing their starvation. Where bears do not die directly from food scarcity, they seek out agricultural crops adjacent to the forest, and are poisoned or trapped and killed by local people. Some headway has been made in establishing buffer zones around protected forested areas, educating local people on nonlethal deterrents, and increasing communication between local people and sanctuary managers, resulting in shared problem solving.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	materials_examined	Taxonomy. Bradypus ursinus Shaw, 1791, Bihar (earlier Bengal), India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	discussion	Previously included in genus Bradypus = sloth. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. M. u. wrsinus Shaw, 1791 — India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. M. u. inornatus Pucheran, 1855 — Sri Lanka.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 190 cm, tail 8 - 17 cm; weight of males 70 - 145 kg (rarely to 190 kg), females 50 - 95 kg (rarely to 120 kg). The Sri Lankan subspecies is smaller, and with a less-shaggy (shorter, sparser) coat than the nominate subspecies. Coat color is black, with rare brown or reddish-brown individuals. Hair length tends to be longer than in other bears, especially around the neck, shoulders, and back (up to 15 - 20 cm). The ears are also covered with long hair. Underfur is lacking, and ventral body hair is sparse. The muzzle has very short hair, and is distinctly light-colored up to the eyes. The lips are highly protrusible (hence this bear is sometimes called the Lip Bear), adapted for sucking termites, and the nose can be closed during such sucking, by pushing it against the side of the feeding excavation. The chest is normally marked by a prominent white V or U-shaped band. Sloth Bears have long (6 - 8 cm) slightly curved, ivory-colored front claws (for digging), and shorter rear claws. The long front claws (along with their coarse, shaggy coat and missing two upper incisors) are what seem to have caused an early taxonomist to call it a sloth. Soles of the feet are naked; unlike other bears, there is no hair between the digital pads and plantar pad on front and hindfeet, and also no hair separating the carpal and plantar (palmar) pad on the front. Unique among the bears, the digital pads are partially fused and are in a nearly straight line.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occupies a wide range of habitats on the Indian subcontinent, including wet and dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands. Densities are highest in alluvial grasslands, and second-highest in moist or dry deciduous forests. Characteristically a lowland species, mainly limited to habitats below 1500 m, but ranges up to 2000 m in the forests of the Western Ghats, India. In Sri Lanka, it inhabits dry monsoon forests below 300 m. The climate throughout the range is monsoonal, with pronounced wet and dry seasons. This causes some variation in food habits and habitat use: very dry or very wet conditions can hamper feeding on termite colonies.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Sloth Bears are both myrmecophagous and frugivorous. Ants, termites, and fruit dominate their diet, with proportions varying seasonally and regionally. Fruits (from at least ten families of trees and shrubs) constitute up to 90 % of the diet during the fruiting season in southern India and 70 % in Sri Lanka, but less than 40 % in Nepal, where fewerfruits are available. Sloth Bears more often eat fallen fruits off the ground than climb to eatfruits in trees. However, they will readily climb to consume honey. During the non-fruiting season, insects make up 95 % of the diet in Nepal and 75 - 80 % in S India and Sri Lanka. The relative proportion of termites to ants in the diet also varies considerably by region; in Nepal and Sri Lanka this ratio 1 s more than 2: 1, whereas in central India the ratio varies from about 1: 1 to 1: 5, favoring ants. Sloth Bears feed on termites by digging into their mounds or underground colonies, then alternately sucking up the termites and blowing away debris. These distinctive “ vacuuming ” sounds can be heard from 200 m away. Although most of their diggings are less than 60 cm deep, they occasionally dig down 1 - 2 m. Sloth Bears typically eat little vegetative matter other than fruits and some flowers, and they rarely prey on mammals or eat carrion. However, where their habitat is severely degraded by intensive human use and most of their normal foods are not available, they feed heavily on cultivated fruits and agricultural crops such as peanuts, corn, potatoes, and yams.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. These bears are more nocturnal than other bears, likely a response to the heat and sparse cover of their environment. Overall amount of activity varies widely, from 40 - 70 % of the 24 hour day, depending on conditions. In a national park in Nepal, with dense cover and moderate temperatures, most Sloth Bears are active both day and night, but are more active at night; conversely, subadults and females with cubs are diurnal, possibly to avoid being killed by nocturnal predators (Tigers) and other bears. In a park in Sri Lanka, with higher temperatures but dense cover, the bears are similarly more active at night and show lowerlevels of activity during the day. Where cover is much sparser, Sloth Bears often remain in shelter dens, usually crevices among boulders in rocky hillocks, the whole day, becoming active only near sunset. In central India, average daytime temperatures immediately outside shelter dens under a patchy (less than 25 %) tree canopy, average 39 ° C (up to 44 ° C) compared to 28 ° C inside the dens. In winter, pregnant females den to give birth, whereas males and non-pregnant females remain active. It is unclear whether denning females actually undergo physiological hibernation in terms of reduced metabolism, recycling of body wastes, and preservation of muscle mass; they do not have large fat supplies to sustain them, like hibernating bears of other species, but they manage to survive without eating or drinking for 2 months. About 2 weeks before emerging from birthing dens with their cubs, they make nightly excursions from the den to feed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges vary from very small (by ursid standards), averaging only 2 km? for females and under 4 km ” for males in Sri Lanka, to moderately small (9 km? for females, 14 km ® for males) in Nepal, to over 100 km? for some individuals in India. In an alluvial floodplain in Nepal, adult male bears shift to higher elevation, forested habitat during the monsoon and use areas nearly twice as large as during the dry season. Females and younger males also expand their ranges, but seem to avoid the upland areas dominated by adult males. Significant seasonal range shifts have not been observed in areas that do not seasonally flood. Bears living in protected areas with intact habitat rarely use adjacent degraded forests and agricultural areas. Movement paths are often highly circuitous, and rates oftravel for active bears are rather slow (maximum about 1 km / h) compared to other ursids, probably reflective of abundant foods. Home ranges extensively overlap, and bears may occasionally feed very close to other individuals without apparent social interaction; however, even in dense populations, it appears that adult females maintain areas of exclusive use within their range. Unrelated subadults have been observed to join together for several weeks, and sibling subadults to stay together for up to 19 months after leaving their mother, possibly as coalitions against attacks by older bears or other predators. Females ultimately settle near their mothers. Subadult males are presumed to disperse, but empirical data are lacking.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating generally occurs from May to July. Males congregate near estrous females and fight for mating access. Females mate with multiple (often 3) males in the order of their established dominance, related largely to weight, and males mate with multiple females. Male-female pairs mate multiple times over a period of one hour to 1 - 2 days; copulations last 2 - 15 minutes. Females generally remain in estrus for only two days, rarely up to one week. Cubs are born from November through January. The 4 - 7 month gestation includes a period of delayed implantation. The birthing season may be somewhat lengthened in Sri Lanka, although previous reports of cubs being born throughout the year have not been corroborated by recent studies. Cubs are born in dens, either natural caves or holes excavated by the mother, and emerge with their mother at 2 - 2 - 5 months of age. The most common littersize is two cubs, although in some populations litters of one are also common; it is not known whether the latter represents cub mortality shortly after birth or small litters at birth. Litters of three are rare. Females have trouble raising litters of three because they carry their cubs on their back, and the third cub, carried over the hips, may bounce off. The long hair near the mother’s shoulders is a preferred riding place because it provides a better grip for the cub. Cubs remain on the back even when the mother vigorously digs for termites in deep holes (more than 1 m). Mothers with cubs on their back travel more slowly than bears without cubs. Cubs ride either head first or crosswise for 6 - 9 months (by which time they are each about one-third the mass of the mother), increasing their time on the ground as they age. When threatened, they scamper to their mother’s back for refuge rather than climbing a tree, probably an adaptation to living in an environment with few trees and formidable predators (Tigers), some predators that can climb trees (Leopards), and large animals that can knock over trees (elephants, rhinoceroses). Cubs nurse for 12 - 14 months, and remain with their mother for either 1 - 5 or 2 - 5 years, so litter intervals are either two or three years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66FC76390977DF0FD46F213.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Sloth Bears are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in all five range countries. However, they can be killed to protect life or property; this is not uncommon, given their aggressive nature and increasing numbers of encounters between bears and people, often resulting in human casualties. Although no reliable large-scale population estimates exist for this species, best guesstimates indicate about 20,000 or fewer animals rangewide. Substantial fragmentation and loss of habitat suggests that their population has declined by more than 30 % over the past 30 years. The recent possible extirpation of Sloth Bears in Bangladesh highlights serious concerns over persistence of small, isolated Sloth Bear populations throughout their range. Populations appear to be reasonably secure inside protected areas, but are faced with deteriorating habitat and direct killing outside. About half to two-thirds of the Sloth Bears in India live outside protected areas, and half the occupied range in Sri Lanka is not protected. Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads. Commercial trade in bear parts has been reported, but its current extent and impact on Sloth Bears is uncertain. Poaching also occurs for local use (e. g. male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration). Capture of live cubs to raise as “ dancing bears ” remains a significant threat in some parts of India because laws against this are not adequately enforced. Some non-governmental organizations have been rescuing these bears (although they cannot be released to the wild) and training the people who hunted them in alternate types of work, in exchange for a commitment that they will not resume the practice.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	materials_examined	Sylhet region (presently divided between Assam India and Bangladesh).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	discussion	Previously included in genus Selenarctos = moon bear. Some subspecies have been corroborated as distinct genetic clades (formosanus, japonicus, ussuricus). Seven subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. U. t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823 — Nepal, NE India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam. U. t. formosanus Swinhoe, 1864 — Taiwan. U. t. gedrosianus Blanford, 1877 — SE Iran, C & S Pakistan. U. t. japonicus Schlegel, 1857 — Japan. U. t. laniger Pocock, 1932 — Himalayas from Afghanistan to N India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh & Uttarakhand). U. t. mupinensis Heude, 1901 — C & S China. U. t. ussuricus Heude, 1901 — Russian Far East, NE China, Korean Peninsula.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 110 - 190 cm, tail less than 12 cm; adult males are heavier (60 - 200 kg; rarely to 250 kg) than adult females (35 - 140 kg; rarely to 170 kg). Maximum weights occur in autumn, prior to hibernation. Island populations (Japan, Taiwan) tend to be smaller-bodied than mainland populations. Ears are rounded and relatively large compared to other bears. Coat color black, typically with prominent white marking on the chest, often in the shape of a V or crescent (from which the common name “ moon bear ” derives), and white chin patch. However, white markings vary in size and color, sometimes being small or absent. Uncommonly the coat coloris brown (gedrosianus) or blond (rare color phase in South-east Asia). Muzzle color varies from light to dark. Typically there are long, coarse hairs around the neck, sometimes also extending to the cheeks; the extent and frequency of these characteristics varies regionally, as does overall hair length and density of underfur. Some subspecies were differentiated largely by the degree of shagginess of pelts from collected specimens. Proportional length of legs to body also varies considerably, with some individuals being quite short and squat. Both front and rear foot pads have hair separating the toes from the plantar pad, but unlike other Ursus species, the front carpal pad (corny protuberance) is connected with the plantar pad by bare skin. Front claws are about 5 cm long, slightly longer than the rear claws, and curved.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Occupy both broad-leaved and coniferous forests, from near sea level to just above treeline (4300 m in north-eastern India), and spanning from the temperate zone to the tropics. Most of range coincides with forest, especially forests with hard mast (oak or beech), but is also found in regenerating forests with berries and cultivated plantations. This species also occupies arid subtropical thorn-forests (southern Iran and Pakistan) and seasonally uses alpine meadows. In tropical South-east Asia, Asiatic Black Bears inhabit both evergreen and deciduous forests, virtually the same as the Sun Bear, except Sun Bears rarely reach into montane habitats (above 1200 m).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Foods often include succulent vegetation (shoots, roots, forbs and leaves) in spring, insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and nuts (hard mast) in autumn. In some areas, mammalian ungulates (especially smallbodied species) may compose a sizeable portion of the diet; however, these bears rarely eat fish. Asiatic Black Bears regularly climb trees to obtain fruits, because most fruits in their range are tree-borne. In tropical regions fruit diversity is especially high. For example, in Thailand their diet includes over 80 species of tree-borne fruits, commonly including those in the cinnamon (Lauraceae), pea-bean (Leguminosae), mahogany (Meliaceae), and oak-beech-chestnut (Fagaceae) families. In temperate regions, where they must store fat for hibernation, hard mast, such as oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and pine nuts, is a key fall dietary component. When feeding in hard mast trees they often break branches inward toward the trunk and pile them up in the canopy forming a platform or “ nest ” upon which they sit. When natural forest foods are lacking, they feed in agricultural fields (corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat) and fruit orchards. In plantations, when food supplies are short, they strip bark and eat cambium of conifer trees, damaging the trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active diurnally most of the year, often with peak activity periods in morning and evening. More uniformly active, day and night, during the fall, when foods are clumped and abundant. Overall level of activity may vary seasonally, but is generally in the range of 50 - 60 % over a 24 hour period. In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate. They typically den November — April, but some remain in dens until the end of May (which is later than other species of bears). In the tropics, except for females giving birth during the winter, Asiatic Black Bears generally do not hibernate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Most reported home ranges based on ground radio-tracking are 20 - 60 km ” for adult females and twice as large for males. However, tracking is often done in remote, mountainous habitats, and bears sometimes wander beyond the tracking area, so true home ranges are likely larger than reported. Home ranges of 100 - 250 km ® have been observed using GPS and satellite radio collars, which obtain locations anywhere the bear goes. Seasonal movements are common, corresponding with changing food conditions, by habitat or elevation. Home range overlap appears to be extensive, but studies of dispersal patterns and relatedness among neighboring bears have not been conducted. Females often avoid areas with clumped, preferred foods, which attract high densities of males.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding generally occurs duringJune — July and birthing during November — March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range, especially in the tropics. The full gestation period of 6 - 8 months includes 4 - 6 months of delayed implantation. Age offirst reproduction is typically 4 - 5 years for both sexes. Modallitter size is two cubs (range 1 - 3, rarely four), but the average is less than two, produced at most every two years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66EC76090BA7EE8FBF2F6F0.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Listed as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The so-called Baluchistan Bear (U. t. gedrosianus), living in south-eastern Iran, and southern Pakistan, is listed as Endangered under the USA Endangered Species Act. Reliable population estimates do not exist anywhere in the range; however, two of 18 range countries estimate total populations of less than 100 (Iran, South Korea), whereas at the other extreme, three countries estimate populations of 5000 - 15,000 (India, Japan, Russia) and one (China) estimates more than 20,000 Asiatic Black Bears. Most countries report declining populations due to habitat loss and poaching. Habitat loss from logging, agriculture, human settlements, roadways, and erosion is most severe in southern portions of the range. The species is protected throughout its range by national and international laws. Sport hunting for Asiatic Black Bears is legal only in Japan and Russia, with annual harvests of about 500 and 100 bears, respectively; however, illegalkills and nuisance kills exceed hunting kills by a factor of five or more in both countries. Bear depredations on crops and apiaries, and attacks on people, have increased throughout the range, and have led to more direct killing, using guns, poisons, and bombs that explode when bitten. Poaching also appears to be increasing, spurred by commercial demands for meat, skins, paws, and gall bladders. The demand for these products has fueled a growing network of international trade throughout South-east Asia, and has encouraged many subsistence hunters to turn to commercial hunting. Paws are sold as an expensive delicacy (made into a soup), especially in China. Bile in gall bladdersis dried and sold as a traditional Chinese medicine; it has been used as such for nearly 3000 years. To supply an increasing demand, bear farms have been established in China and Vietnam, where bile is drained from over 12,000 Asiatic Black Bears and sold commercially. This technique was originally developed in North Korea in the 1970 s, and “ perfected ” over the years in China. Some officials assert that the increased production of bile from farming reduces poaching of wild bears; conversely, the cheaper and more available farmed bile also may encourage more use, and thus ultimately more demand for wild bile, which is considered more potent. Farmed bile is now produced in such surplus that it is incorporated into many non-traditional Chinese medicine products, such as shampoos, lotions, cosmetics, sports drinks, and toothpaste. Prompted by animal welfare-related concerns, several hundred bears have been removed from farms and taken to rescue facilities run by non-governmental organizations. However, the large total number of captive, non-releasable bears and the opinion of government officials that farming aids in the conservation of wild bears, make the situation rather intractable.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	materials_examined	eastern North America.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	discussion	Genetic comparisons among the various purported subspecies have not been performed, except in a few cases. Recent genetic evidence indicates that luteolus, formerly thought to occur only in Louisiana, extends northward to Arkansas, and also may not be differentiated from floridanus in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. U. a. americanus Pallas, 1780 — Alaska to E Canada and E USA. U. a. altifrontalis Elliot, 1903 — Pacific coast USA and Canada (S British Columbia). U. a. amblyceps Baird, 1859 — SW USA. U. a. californiensisJ. Miller, 1900 — SW USA (interior California). U. a. carlottae Osgood, 1901 — W Canada (Queen Charlotte Is). U. a. cinnamomum Audubon & Bachman, 1854 — Rocky Mts of Canada and USA. U. a. emmonsu Dall, 1895 — SE Alaska. U. a. eremicus Merriam, 1904 — E Mexico. U. a. floridanus Merriam, 1896 — SE USA (Florida). U. a. hamilton: Cameron, 1957 — E Canada (Newfoundland). U. a. kermodei Hornaday, 1905 — W Canada (coastal British Columbia). U. a. luteolus Griffith, 1821 — S USA (Louisiana). U. a. machetes Elliot, 1903 — W Mexico. U. a. pernigerJ. A. Allen, 1910 — Alaska (Kenai Peninsula). U. a. pugnax Swarth, 1911 — islands of SE Alaska. U. a. vancouver: Hall, 1928 — SW Canada (Vancouver I).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 120 - 190 cm, tail less than 12 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, adult males are heavier (60 - 225 kg, rarely up to 400 kg) than adult females (40 - 150 kg, but occasionally more than 180 kg). Straight facial profile, from forehead to nose, distinguishes this species from the partially sympatric Brown (Grizzly) Bear. Muzzle color is usually tan, with short hairs. Sometimes a small tan circular mark occurs slightly above each eye. Eyes are often blue at birth, but turn brown during the first year. Body hairs are rather uniform in length, but much sparser ventrally. A thick underfur is grown in fall, and molted in late spring. Coat color varies from uniformly black to various shades of brown, including cinnamon (reddish-brown) and blond. Brown-phase American Black Bears are common in western USA, less common in western Canadian Provinces, and rare along the west coast of Canada, across Alaska, and in eastern North America and Mexico. Rare white-colored (non-albino) bears occur in coastal British Columbia and gray (often called blue) bears occur in south-east Alaska. White chest markings, from one or more small spots to a large crescent-shaped blaze, occur to varying degrees, but in most populations are uncommon (except in cubs). Claws are short. Hair separates the digital pads from the main foot pad on the front and rear feet. There is also hair between the front (palmar) foot pad and carpal pad, which in normal walking does not touch the ground. Foot pads are shed in winter, when bears are in dens.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Found primarily in temperate and boreal forests, but also range into subtropical areas (Florida and Mexico) as well as into the subarctic. They inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the Grizzly Bear). They tend to occupy more forested habitats than the Grizzly Bear, especially where the two species are sympatric. Elevationally they range from sea level to 3000 m, and up to 3500 m for winter denning.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. American Black Bears are generalist, opportunistic omnivores with diets varying seasonally from herbaceous vegetation (mainly in spring) to roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion. They are also attracted to human-related foods, including garbage, birdseed, corn, oats, apples, honey and brood in apiaries. Feeding increases dramatically in the fall, in preparation for hibernation, and focuses on foods rich in fat. American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) were once a key fall food in eastern North America, but after blight destroyed this food source in the early to mid- 1900 s, oak (Quercus) acorns and beechnuts (Fagus grandifolia) became the main fall foods. Farther west, hazelnuts (Corylus), whitebark pine nuts (Pinus albicaulis), madrone (Arbutus xalapensis), mansanita (Arctostaphylos), huckleberries (Vaccinium), and buffalo berries (Shepherdia canadensis) are principalfall foods. In arid regions, succulents such as yucca and cacti are important, especially during droughts.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Mainly diurnal, commonly with an early morning and evening peak in activity and a lull in midday. They tend to sleep through the night, but nocturnal activity may increase during fall, especially in places with clumped, abundant foods. It has been theorized that gut capacity and passage rates of food may limit the length of feeding bouts when intake rates are high, prompting more uniform feeding throughout the day. Alternately, or additionally, large weight gains in fall may pose energetic constraints on feeding. More nocturnal activity also occurs when feeding in areas near human activity. Total time active per day averages 50 - 60 %, but may be less when abundant human-related foods are available. Virtually no activity occurs for the 3 - 7 months of winter hibernation. In some southern portions of the range, where food is available year-round, only parturient females and those with cubs from the previous year hibernate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home range sizes vary widely, from 3 — - 1100 km? among individuals, and from 5 - 500 km? * among population means. In one unusual case on the tundra of Labrador, Canada, where food supplies were especially sparse, males ranged over 7000 km *, much like Brown Bears in similar environments. Home ranges are compressed where and when food is abundant, and where bear density is high. Likewise, overlap among home ranges tends to be greater where food abundance and bear density are high. Male home ranges are 2 - 10 times larger than those of females. Males thus overlap a number of potential breeding partners. In some areas, females (but not males) appear to be territorial, with portions of their home range not shared by other females. Female offspring remain within their natal range for a few years, gaining continued protection from the presence of their mother, and gradually expand their range to include other areas and less of their mother’s range as they age. Males, when 1 - 4 years old, disperse from the natal range. Dispersal distances vary from less than 10 to more than 200 km; dispersers may travel more than 40 km in a week. Seasonal movements, especially to fall mast areas, are common for both sexes, although again, males move farther. In mountainous areas, shifts occur elevationally in accordance with changing food conditions; in flatter terrain, fall movements of 20 km to more than 50 km are not unusual, with greater movements in years when food supplies are particularly sparse. Single-day movements of more than 20 km have been reported. Such fall excursions are commonly referred to as the “ fall shuffle ”, in reference to the intermixing of individuals from various places (as well as the shuffling gait). Typically, bears that leave their normal home range in the fall return to a more familiar area to den.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating typically occurs from mid-May to July, but may extend longer, especially in more southerly regions. Copulation induces ovulation. Males locate females by scent. Estrous females actively attract males by scent marking. Both sexes travel widely during the breeding season, and adult males may significantly reduce foraging. Testosterone levels are elevated in breeding males, which increases aggression. Access to females is governed by a male dominance hierarchy and male-male interactions; the extent of fighting among males varies among populations, and is related to density and sex ratios. Male-female breeding pairs may remain together for several days and copulate multiple times. Both sexes breed with multiple partners, but a small proportion of breeding males actually sire offspring. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in November and birthing in January or February (occasionally December) while the mother is hibernating. Cubs are born highly altricial, weighing 200 - 450 g, 20 cm in length, eyes closed and nearly hairless. Females give birth beginning at age 3 - 8 years, depending on food availability and hence their growth rate, and can produce cubs every other year until their mid-to-late 20 s. Mothers and cubs leave the birthing den when cubs are 2 -: 5 - 3 - 5 months old. They readily climb trees as a refuge when the mother is off feeding, sometimes several kilometers away. They nurse until autumn, but increasingly consume wild foods beginning in late spring. They den with their mother over their first birthday, and remain with her for 16 - 17 months. Family breakup is usually instigated by the mother’s breeding activity. Where food is less abundant, the interbirth interval may be prolonged to three or more years, enabling a period of recovery without cubs. Litter sizes range from 1 - 5, averaging 2 - 5 cubs in eastern North America and 2 - 0 in western North America, and tend to be slightly male-biased.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F66DC761959176EDF5EBFB6E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Not globally threatened, listed as Least Concern by The IUCN Red Lust, but is listed on Appendix II of CITES under the similarity of appearance provision; this mandates tagging of exported parts legally taken by hunters, so they cannot be confused with parts from illegally taken bears ofother species. With a total population estimated at about 900,000, American Black Bears are more than twice as abundant as all other species of bears combined, even though they exist in only three countries in North America (Canada, USA, Mexico). Continent-wide, numbers appear to be increasing by about 2 % per year, and more than 60 % of USA states and Canadian provinces report increasing populations. Approximately 40,000 - 50,000 are harvested annually by sport hunters in 28 USA states and twelve Canadian provinces and territories. In Mexico, no hunting is allowed, and the species is considered nationally endangered, but appears to be increasing and expanding its range. The Louisiana subspecies (luteolus) was listed as threatened under the USA Endangered Species Act because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality. U. a. floridanusis listed as threatened by the state ofFlorida. The Kermode Bear (kermodei) or “ spirit bear ”, a white-phase American Black Bear, was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia, and provided the inspiration for a large system of protected areas (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) where logging in coastal temperate rainforest is severely restricted.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	materials_examined	northern Sweden.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	discussion	Genetic data corroborate the distinctiveness of some subspecies, such as isabellinus in Central Asia, but not others. Eight subspecies have been recognized in North America (seven of which are extant), but genetically these group into only three or four discrete clades, none of which match current subspecies designations. Conversely, whereas only one subspecies (artos) has been recognized for Europe, two geographically distinct lineages have been identified. California race californicus (Merriam, 1896) and north-western Africa race crowthert (Schinz, 1844) are extinct. Fourteen extant subspecies currently recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	distribution	Subspecies and Distribution. U. a. arctos Linnaeus, 1758 — Europe and W Russia. U. a. alascensis Merriam, 1896 — most of Alaska (excluding Alaska Peninsula, SE panhandle & Kodiak Island group). U. a. beringianus Middendorff, 1853 — NE Russia (Kamchatka Peninsula & N Kuril Islands northward through the Koryak Autonomous District, and along W coast of the Sea of Okhotsk). U. a. collaris Cuvier, 1824 — Russia (Siberia, from E of the Yenisey River to the Bering Sea, but excluding Kamchatka and more southern parts of the Russian Far East), N Mongolia. U. a. dalli Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (N of Alexander Archipelago). U. a. gyas Merriam, 1902 — Alaska peninsula. U. a. horribilis Ord, 1815 — W Canada (Yukon, North-West Territories, British Columbia & Alberta), inland W USA (extirpated from S Wyoming to Mexico). U. a. isabellinus Horsfield, 1826 — N India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, N to Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Gobi Desert). U. a. lasiotus Gray, 1867 — Russia (Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Ussuri / Amur river region of the Russian Far East), NE China, North Korea, and Japan (Hokkaido). U. a. middendorffi Merriam, 1896 — Alaska (Kodiak Island & nearby islands). U. a. pruinosus Blyth, 1853 — Tibetan Plateau, China, N Nepal. U. a. sitkensis Merriam, 1896 — SE Alaska (Alexander Archipelago & adjacent coastal area). U. a. stikeenensis Merriam, 1914 — W Canada (W British Columbia), and formerly W USA (W Washington and Oregon). U. a. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828 — Middle East, from Turkey to Iran (extirpated in Syria), Caucasus mountains of Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 150 - 280 cm, shoulder height up to 150 cm, tail 6 - 21 cm. Weights vary regionally and seasonally, with food availability. Adult males are heavier (130 - 550 kg; rarely up to 725 kg) than adult females (80 - 250 kg, but occasionally up to 340 kg). Facial profile from forehead to nose is concave. Body profile includes a distinct muscular shoulder hump with long hairs. Coat color varies from uniform brown to mixed shades of brown, blond, and silver-tipped (grizzled), to partly gray or black, or fully black. The grizzled phase (Grizzly Bear) occurs in interior North America, whereas the black and partially black phases occur in eastern and central Asia. Color can lighten with bleaching from the sun. Prominent markings, from a white or creamcolored chest patch to a solid band that wrap across the chest and around the shoulders to the back, vary regionally and individually. Such markings are often present on cubs, but may be lost with age. Body hairs are sparser ventrally. Underfur is grown in fall, and molted in spring. Long, powerful, slightly curved front claws (4 - 10 cm) varying from dark brown to yellow to white, are characteristic. Foot pads are like that of the American Black Bear.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Brown Bears occupy a wider range of habitats than any other bear, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, meadows, grasslands, Arctic shrublands and tundra, alpine tundra, semi-deserts and deserts. Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic Black Bear, and also slightly that of the Polar Bear. They exist at elevations from sea level (temperate rainforests and Arctic tundra) to well above treeline (dry Asian steppes); highest elevation sightings (tracks in snow) have been at 5500 m (possibly 5800 m) in the Himalayas, and highest latitude sightings at 74 ° N (Canada), well into Polar Bear range.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Food habits vary regionally from principally herbivorous to principally carnivorous, depending on habitat. Plant foods include grasses, sedges, horsetails, forbs, roots, berries, and nuts. Animal foods include insects, rodents, ungulates, and fish. Insects are a significant dietary component in broadleaved forests of Europe, rodents and ungulates are most important in Arctic and alpine areas and some Boreal forests, and fish are paramount along the Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to Alaska to Kamchatka (Russia). Herbaceous vegetation tends to be the chief component of the spring diet. Later the bears switch to roots, berries, pine nuts, acorns, ants, bees, moths, ground squirrels, marmots, pikas, neonate ungulates, or spawning salmon, depending on availability. This species is morphologically and behaviorally well adapted to digging up insects and underground rodents, killing ungulates (including domestic species, like sheep and cattle), and catching salmon. In North America they rarely climb trees, whereas in Europe and parts of Asia they do so more regularly.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Active diurnally in North America, except where human activity is high. Nocturnally active in most of Europe, possibly due to more frequent contact with humans, both historically and presently. Young bears in Europe are active uniformly through the day, but apparently learn to become more nocturnal through negative experiences with people. Total time active per day (40 - 80 %) varies with local conditions (food, day length). The period of hibernation also varies regionally: at the northern extremes of their range they may hibernate for seven months (October-May); conversely, on Kodiak Island, Alaska, where winters are mild and some food may remain available, about one-quarter of the males do not den all winter, an unusual anomaly among Brown Bears. In Russia, following seasons with very poor food, large numbers of malnourished bears may wander about for much of the winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Individual home range sizes vary by nearly four orders of magnitude (7 - 30,000 km?), related to food supply and bear density. Home ranges are largest in the barren-ground Arctic tundra, averaging 8000 km? for males. Rangesizes are smaller in boreal or montane forests, where large mammals are a main dietary component, and smaller yet in deciduous or mixed forests with hard mast. In coastal areas, with abundant food and high bear density, home ranges are smallest, averaging less than 200 km ” for males and less than 100 km? for females. Male home ranges are typically three to four times larger than those of females; both sexes increase their ranges during the mating season to maximize overlap with potential mates. Bear density and home range overlap are high in coastal populations with abundant and predictable food (spawning salmon). In interior populations, with less abundant or more variable food, home ranges overlap less, and bears may be somewhat territorial. In extreme northern populations, where food resources are scarce, home ranges are large and indefensible, so overlap is high. Home range overlap is also positively associated with relatedness, because female offspring often settle near their mother, assuming part of their natal home range. Multigenerational, matrilineal assemblages occur in established populations, whereas females may be more prone to disperse and settle among unrelated individuals in expanding populations. Males disperse in either case, but their dispersal age (1 - 4 years old) is related to their growth rate, and dispersal distance is inversely related to bear density. In a low density, expanding population in Scandinavia, one-third to half the females dispersed, settling 15 km from the natal range, on average, and 80 - 90 % of males dispersed, generally settling over 100 km and up to nearly 500 km away. Seasonal movements are common for both sexes. In mountainous terrain, regular seasonal altitudinalshifts correspond with changing food conditions at different elevations and habitats. Lateral movements to seasonally abundant food sources may involve large numbers of bears traveling along well-worn routes, akin to a migration. Movements to fall feeding areas, followed by returns to denning sites, are often direct and rapid: travels exceeding 20 km in twelve hours have been recorded. At rich feeding areas, such as salmon streams, females with cubs avoid places with a high density of males, apparently because of threats of infanticide.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating is promiscuous, and generally occurs from mid-May to mid-July. Within individual populations, the breeding period in any given yearis narrower, typically about one month. Estrus can be as brief as one day to as long as a month, and male-female pairings can last from just a few hoursto three weeks. Copulation generally lasts 10 - 40 minutes, and induces ovulation. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until six to eight weeks prior to birthing, which usually occurs in January or February, while the mother is hibernating in a secluded den. Food conditions, especially the proportion of meat (particularly salmon) in the diet, largely affect reproductive rates. Average age offirst birthing varies among populations from fourto ten years, and average litter size varies from 1 - 3 - 2 - 5 cubs. Maximum littersize is five. Inter-birth intervals are as short as two years in some European populations, more typically three years and sometimes more than four years in North America, and averages 5 - 7 years in a high altitude population in Pakistan. Extended litter intervals result from mothers spending extra time to raise cubs in poorer habitats. Offspring generally remain with the mother until she breeds; however, where inter-birth intervals are greatly extended, mothers may recoup for a year or more without offspring. Females continue to produce cubs until their mid to late 20 s, but may live another ten years after that.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F661C76D95AF7E5EFDF7F970.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Only populations in central Asia (Mongolia to the Himalayas, China, Nepal, Bhutan) fall under CITES Appendix I; all others are CITES Appendix II. The species as a whole is not considered threatened by The IUCN Red List (Least Concern), but some individual European populations are separately red-listed (Vulnerable-Critically Endangered), and other threatened populations will be added in the near future. These small populations tend to exist in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development, which act as mortality sinks. Forty-seven countries in North America, Europe, and Asia are inhabited by Brown Bears. During the past 500 years they have been extirpated from 17 other countries, including large parts of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Mexico. In the lower 48 states of the USA, they were exterminated from more than 98 % of their original range within 100 years of the arrival of European settlers, and have not since recovered. The total world population is estimated to exceed 200,000. Fairly reliable population estimates exist for several areas in North America (USA 33,000; Canada 25,000) and Europe (14,000, excluding Russia), but for few areas in Asia. Russia has the largest number of Brown Bears, believed to exceed 100,000. The species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, but smaller, fragmented populations exist farther south. Populations are sufficiently large to sustain legal hunting in Russia, several former Soviet Republics, Japan (Hokkaido Island), Canada, Alaska (USA), and several European countries. Conversely, populations with fewer than 100 individuals exist along the USA-Canadian border and in southern Europe where several small, isolated populations persist: two in the Pyrenees (France and Spain), one with less than 10 bears and the other with about 20, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) containing 20 - 30 and 80 - 100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) with 40 - 50 bears, and in the the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) with 35 - 40 bears. Small, disconnected populations are also scattered across southern Asia, and in some areas even the present existence of this species is unknown (Bhutan, Iraq). As wide-ranging omnivores, Brown Bears are attracted to areas with human-related foods, where they may threaten life and damage property (livestock, cropfields) and may be killed as a consequence. Small numbers of mortalities, especially adult females, can threaten the viability of small, isolated populations. Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, but with varying degrees of enforcement. Moreover, even where hunting is banned, other sorts of human-caused mortality (management removals, self-defense, malicious killing, poaching, mistaken hunting of Black Bear) dominate the population dynamics of these bears. Reintroductions and population augmentations have helped to restore numbers and expand geographic range in the USA and Western Europe. Numerous protected areas around the world have Brown Bears, but few are large enough to support a self-sustaining population; therefore, Brown Bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	materials_examined	Spitsbergen, (Svalbard) Norway.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	discussion	Considered a sister species to U. arctos. Most closely related to Brown Bears on the Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof islands of south-east Alaska. Although several distinct populations or stocks have been delineated, small genetic differences have been found among these, and no subspecies have been differentiated. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Arctic Ocean: Canada, USA (Alaska), Greenland, Norway (Svalbard), Russia. Have been sighted within 0 - 5 ° of North Pole.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 180 - 280 cm, shoulder height up to 170 cm, tail 6 - 13 cm; adult males are about twice as heavy (300 - 650 kg, but up to 800 kg) as adult females (150 - 250 kg, but up to 500 kg when pregnant), making them one of the most sexuallydimorphic mammals. Size varies regionally, being smallest in eastern Greenland, and progressively larger westward to the Bering Sea. Facial profile is straight, the neck is longer than in other bears, and the ears are small in relation to head and body size. Coat color appears white or yellowish, with no other markings, but can accumulate colors from the environment (e. g. blood and oils from killed prey). In reality, both guard hairs and underfur are translucent, and guard hairs are hollow, thus enhancing their insulation properties. However, a previous assertion that they act as fiber optic tubes, funneling sunlight to the skin for warmth, has been disproven. The skin is black, but only the black nose is visible. Summer coats are shorter than winter coats, but unlike other bears, coat thickness is not sparser ventrally. Additionally, the paws are well-furred on the underside, and have small soft papillae and vacuoles that may act as suction cups for traction on ice. The feet are also relatively large, providing more surface area for swimming and walking on thin ice. The claws are shorter and more curved than Brown Bears, and are usually dark-colored.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Arctic ice provides a necessary platform for hunting seals. Annual ice adjacent to coastlines (shore fast ice) regularly fractures, providing open leads where seals can breathe. The seasonal fluctuations between freezing and open water also promotes high productivity of fish, the prey of seals. Thus, this habitat is preferred by seals, and is consequently a favored habitat for Polar Bears, which hunt seals along the ice cracks and edges. Polar Bears also hunt from large chunks of drifting ice, and to a lesser extent, multiannual pack ice, where seal density is lower and access to seals more difficult. For this reason, density of Polar Bearsis low close to the North Pole. In summer, when the ice retreats, bears either migrate northward or use nearshore terrestrial habitats. Parturient females stay ashore to den and give birth. In Hudson Bay (Canada) they den 10 - 80 km inland in peat banks; elsewhere maternity dens are typically in snow caves along coastal areas. However, in the Beaufort Sea, half the pregnant females den on drifting sea ice. Non-pregnant bears do not hibernate, but do use shelter dens. At lower latitudes, they use shelters on land during ice-free periods to escape heat and conserve energy when precluded from hunting seals; at high latitudes (above 75 ° N) they seek shelters on thick sea ice during winter, when foraging is most difficult and weather conditions harshest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Almoststrictly carnivorous, preying mainly on young Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), to a lesser extent Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus), and in some areas, Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). The principal focus on Ringed Seals is evident in the close association between Polar Bear density and Ringed Seal density, and in the unique behavior of these seals, which give birth in subnivian lairs as an anti-predation strategy. One study found that an average Polar Bear consumes fewer than 50 Ringed Seals a year, 80 % being pups caught either in their lairs or shortly after emerging from their lairs. Polar Bears also occasionally prey on other marine mammals, such as Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus), and Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales. These large prey, including Bearded Seals (which are much larger than Ringed Seals), are taken mainly by adult male bears. When ashore, depending on availability, Polar Bears have been observed to prey on Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), seabirds, or fish; and eat carrion (dead whales), berries, vegetation, and human garbage.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Appear to be mainly diurnal. Seasonal changes in activity vary regionally with dynamics of sea ice and abundance of prey. Activity, measured by percent of time active and distance moved, is elevated when seal pups are particularly naive and vulnerable to predation, and when older seals are molting and basking on the ice. In contrast to other predators, Polar Bears are most active when prey is most abundant. They become hyperphagic, and are able to store fat to withstand extended periods when foraging is more difficult, such as during the winter on the pack ice. Periods of rapid annual ice formation and ablation, during summer and fall, also result in greater activity. Parturient females den for about six months (mid-September to mid-March in most areas); non-pregnant Polar Bears do not hibernate.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Although once thought to wander aimlessly or be carried passively on shifting ice, recent data collected using satellite radio collars have shown that Polar Bears have definite home ranges that are used year to year. However, these ranges can be enormous: one female bear traveled over 5200 km from Alaska to Greenland in four months. Nevertheless, most bears seem to remain within a discrete population, or stock; 19 or 20 such populations have been identified across the geographic range. Home ranges and movements are highly variable by region, habitat, season, and reproductive condition or family association. Around Svalbard, nearshore bears tend to have smaller home ranges than pelagic bears. In the Canadian Arctic, bears that live in areas with highly variable and unpredictable ice conditions (including ice-free periods) have larger ranges than bears living on more stable ice. Individual ranges as large as 600,000 km * have been reported, but so have ranges of less than 1000 km ®. Means among different populations range from 20,000 - 250,000 km?. Little movement data have been collected on males, because they cannot be radio-collared (their necks are bigger than their heads), but data from implanted transmitters indicate that, unlike terrestrial bears, their ranges are not larger than those of females. With females being so mobile, and having highly overlapping ranges, males can include multiple potential breeding partners within their range, even if their range is not larger than the females’. Female maternity dens are highly congregated in some areas, such as Wrangel Island, parts of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and near Churchill, Manitoba.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding occurs from March to June. Mating induces ovulation, and males spar for mating partners. Implantation of the fertilized egg is delayed until autumn, about the time that females enter maternity dens. In some areas this follows a period of on-shore fasting, so by the time these mothers emerge from dens the following spring they may not have eaten for eight months. Birthing occurs mid-November to January, so the total gestation, including the period of delayed implantation, is from 6: 5 to more than 8 - 5 months. Cubs stay in the den until March or early April. Two-cublitters are most common, and average litter size is less than two in virtually all populations; however, litters of three are not uncommon in some areas, and litters of four have been reported. Females have only four mammae (other bears, except Sun Bears and Giant Pandas have six), so this is the maximum litter size. Average age offirst birthing ranges among different populations from 4 - 6 - 7 - 2 years. Productivity increases into the teen years, but then declines through the early 20 s, and ceases by the late 20 s. Intervals between litters average 2 - 1 - 3 - 6 years. Cubs separate from their mother either at 17 months, or more commonly a year later. Cubs may nurse through their second birthday. The fat content of milk is very high initially (more than 30 %), but declines through the nursing period.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
039D8794F660C76A95CD786DF94FFD51.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. In 2006 The IUCN Red List status was upgraded to Vulnerable due to projections of dramatic reductions in habitat (coverage and stability of the ice sheet) over the next 50 - 100 years. Demographic consequences to Polar Bears are already becoming apparent in some areas, in terms of reduced numbers and reduced survival ofjuveniles and old adults. Ringed Seals are also suffering increased mortality from Polar Bear predation because of melting of their subnivian dens. Accordingly, the USA listed the species as nationally threatened and Canada listed it as a species of special concern. This would impose further constraints on activities that affect these bears or their habitat, such as hunting, recreational viewing, shipping, and oil and gas exploration and development. The effects of sea ice change will vary enormously by region, which is difficult to forecast, but overall arelikely to be dramatic and permanent. Nineteen fairly discrete populations have been identified, with a total world population estimated at 20,000 - 25,000; about half this number resides in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. Under an agreement for co-management of Polar Bear populations that was ratified in 1976, the five range countries coordinate and consult with each other on research activities, methods of population estimation and monitoring, and proposals for increased protection. Most importantly, under this treaty, harvestis restricted: the taking of cubs or females with cubs is prohibited, and harvest is limited to native people for subsistence use. This includes consumption of meat, use of hides for clothing, and creation of handicrafts. In some territories of Canada, a portion of the annual harvest is allocated to non-native sport hunters who employ native guides and hunt using dogsleds and other traditional methods. This generates income for the native communities. Harvests are regulated to be sustainable. Recently, pressure has mounted to reduce or prohibit harvests so as not to compound the effects of diminishing sea ice habitat from global warming.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Ursidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 448-497, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714493
