identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
6A61FC4EFFAD014A1E5FFD836828DDE6.text	6A61FC4EFFAD014A1E5FFD836828DDE6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procyonidae Gray 1825	<div><p>Family PROCYONIDAE</p> <p>(RACCOONS)</p> <p>• Medium-sized mammals, many species with facial masks and/or long ringed tails.</p> <p>• 54-144 cm.</p> <p>• North, Central, and South America.</p> <p>• Found in every forest type within their range; some also use urban areas or arid lands with rocky shelters.</p> <p>• 6 genera, 12 species, 78 extant taxa.</p> <p>• 1 species Critically Endangered; none Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAD014A1E5FFD836828DDE6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAF01481CCAFE3A6EF1D350.text	6A61FC4EFFAF01481CCAFE3A6EF1D350.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Bassaricyon alleni Thomas 1880	<div><p>1.</p> <p>Lowland Olingo</p> <p>Bassaricyon alleni</p> <p>French: Olingo d’'Allen / German: Makibar / Spanish: Olingo de Allen</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bassaricyon alleni Thomas, 1880,</p> <p>Sarayacu, on the Bobonasa river, Upper Pastasa river [Ecuador].</p> <p>The Lowland Olingo was initially described as five different species but is now recognized as one broadly ranging olingo with three subspecies.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>B. a. alleni Thomas, 1880 — South America, E of the Andes.</p> <p>B. a. medius Thomas, 1909 — Choc6 region of W Colombia, Ecuador, and NW Venezuela.</p> <p>B. a. orinomus Goldman, 1912 — E Panama.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 30-49 cm, tail 35-53 cm; weight 0.9-1.6 kg. Olingos are tawny brown in color with long tails that sometimes appear ringed. They are often mistaken for Kinkajous when glimpsed at night through the canopy vegetation. Kinkajous are approximately twice the weight of olingos, although overall length is similar, making size an unreliable indicator for identifying animals running through the trees. The two species can be distinguished even under field conditions by key characters of the snout, lateral line, and tail. Olingos are different from Kinkajous in having a more pointed snout with gray fur, and a sharper lateral line separating their darker back and lighter-colored belly. Olingo tails are much bushier than the muscular tail of a Kinkajou, and sometimes show faint rings. Finally, the tail of an olingo is not prehensile, so is only used to balance, and can not grab branches as Kinkajous frequently do. Olingos also have a similar body form to Cacomistles, but are differentiated in being browner (not gray) with a slimmer tail that has only faint annulations.</p> <p>Habitat. The Lowland Olingo is found in moist tropical forests up to 1800 m, but usually below 1500 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Olingos are primarily frugivorous and the extent to which they also hunt prey is uncertain. Reports from the field only describe olingos consuming fruits and flowers, but information from captivity, and dental morphology, suggest they may also consume insects or other small prey. They have been recorded feeding on the same fruit and flower resources as Kinkajous in Panama and Peru, and were sometimes displaced from feeding trees by aggressive Kinkajous.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Olingos are completely arboreal and primarily nocturnal, spending daylight hours resting in tree holes or other arboreal den sites.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Movement data are only available for one male olingo that used a home range of 37 ha and moved 4-5 km per night. Their social organization is not described, but they appear to be more solitary than Kinkajous. Social vocalizations and scent marking have been recorded in captivity. A long-distance call has been described from a variety of field workers variously as a “whey-chuck”, “wer-toll”, and “wake-up”.</p> <p>Breeding. Olingo reproductive behavior is well described from captive animals. They are polyestrous, with an estrous cycle of 24 days. Matings take place during one to three consecutive nights and copulations can last up to 68 minutes. The gestation period is about 74 days,after which one young is born. Pups can stand up after about three weeks and walk well after ten weeks, but require three to five months to develop climbing skills. Independent feeding starts at about seven weeks.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Olingos are classified by The [UCN Red List as Least Concern, but seem to occur at lower densities and be more sensitive to disturbance than other procyonids.</p> <p>Bibliography. Garza et al. (2000), Janson &amp; Emmons (1990), Kays (1999b, 2000), Mendes &amp; Chivers (2002), Poglayen-Neuwall (1976a, 1973, 1989), Redford &amp; Stearman (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAF01481CCAFE3A6EF1D350	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAF01481CF1F54A65D6DC41.text	6A61FC4EFFAF01481CF1F54A65D6DC41.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Bassaricyon gabbii J. A. Allen 1876	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Northern Olingo</p> <p>Bassaricyon gabbii</p> <p>French: Olingo commun / German: Mittelamerika-Makibar / Spanish: Olingo de Gabb</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bassaricyon gabbii J. A. Allen, 1876,</p> <p>Talamanca, Costa Rica.</p> <p>Four subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and distribution.</p> <p>B. g. gabbii J. A. Allen, 1876 — Costa Rica (Talamanca Mts).</p> <p>B. g. lasius Harris, 1932 — N Costa Rica.</p> <p>B. g. pauli Enders, 1936 — Panama (Chiriqui Mts).</p> <p>B. g. richardson:]. A. Allen, 1908 — Nicaragua, possibly Guatemala and Honduras.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-49 cm, tail 40-53 cm; weight 1.1-6 kg. This is the largest olingo, differing from others in the genus by being more yellowish brown and often having a prominently ringed tail. It is also more sexually dimorphic than other olingos, with males having more robust heads.</p> <p>Habitat. Found in forests within the central part of Mesoamerica. This olingo has a wide elevational range (near sea level to about 2000 m) but is most common in mountainous forests above 1000 m. This is probably the species recently recorded in the lowlands of Guatemala, and perhaps also seen in the mountains of Honduras.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Northern Olingos have been seen feeding on fruit and nectar in rainforest trees, but no details have been published on their diet. Anecdotal evidence suggests they may also catch small animal prey in the trees.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Northern Olingos are arboreal and typically nocturnal. Olingos in Monteverde, Costa Rica, have been recorded active during the day;it is unclearif this is typical for the species orif this is in response to being fed by humans at the tourist lodge.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Northern Olingos are typically seen as singletons, but other details of their behavior have not been studied.</p> <p>Breeding. The breeding behavior of the Northern Olingo has not been described but is presumed to be similar to the Lowland olingo.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern by The IUCN Red List, but probably more sensitive to disturbance than other procyonids. In eastern Costa Ricait is considered highly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and was recorded from the Las Cruces Forest reserve, and from some forest remnants, but not from open habitats. The recent change in the taxonomy of this group, and limited geographic range of this species, will probably require a revision ofits conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Daily et al. (2003), Garza et al. (2000), Wainwright (2007).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAF01481CF1F54A65D6DC41	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAF014819FEFA396A56D37B.text	6A61FC4EFFAF014819FEFA396A56D37B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Bassaricyon n. sp.	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Andean Olingo</p> <p>Bassaricyon n. sp.</p> <p>French: Olingo des Andes / German: Anden-Makibar / Spanish: Olingo andino</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bassaricyon n. sp. Helgen, in prep,</p> <p>Las Maquinas, Ecuador.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. The species lives in Andean cloud forest above 1500 m in Colombia, Ecuador, and possibly N Peru.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 32-40 cm, tail 33-43 cm; weight 0-75.1-1 kg. The Andean Olingo is similar in overall form to the Lowland Olingo, although obviously different in being of smaller size with a much longer, denser, and more richly colored pelage. In Ecuador Olingos have black-tipped, tan colored fur. Colombian animals are red-brown. The tail is not conspicuously banded, although when viewed in the right light a banding pattern is sometimes seen.</p> <p>Habitat. Cloud forest between 1500-2750 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. All records to date describe Olingos eating fruit, especially wild figs.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal and arboreal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known about their movements or social behaviors, although they are typically seen as singletons.</p> <p>Breeding. The Olingo has a single pair of mammae and probably raises one young at a time.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. This newly-described species has not been evaluated by The IUCN Red List. It apparently has a small geographic range in the Northern Andes, with a specialization on cloud forest habitats that are threatened by deforestation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Helgen et al. (In prep).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAF014819FEFA396A56D37B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAF014919F9F4E36A11D8F4.text	6A61FC4EFFAF014919F9F4E36A11D8F4.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Bassariscus astutus (Lichtenstein 1830)	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Ringtail</p> <p>Bassariscus astutus</p> <p>French: Bassaris rusé / German: Nordamerikanisches katzenfrett / Spanish: Cacomixtle</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bassaris astuta Lichtenstein, 1830,</p> <p>Mexico City, Mexico.</p> <p>Fourteen subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>B. a. astutus Lichtenstein, 1830 — SE Mexico.</p> <p>B. a. arnizonensis Goldman, 1932 — USA (in and near Arizona).</p> <p>B. a. bolei Goldman, 1945 — Mexico (Guerrero).</p> <p>B. a. consitus Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1932 — C &amp; W Mexico.</p> <p>On following pages: 5. Cacomistle (Bassariscus sumichrasti); 6. South American Coati (Nasua nasua); 7. White-nosed Raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus); 11. Northern Raccoon (Procyon loton; 12. Cozumel Raccoon (Procyon pygmaeus) Coati (Nasua narica); 8. Mountain Coati (Nasuella olivacea); 9. Kinkajou (Potos flavus); 10. Crab-eating.</p> <p>B. a. flavus Rhoads, 1893 — N Mexico and S &amp; C USA.</p> <p>B. a. insulicola Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1909 — Mexico (San José I).</p> <p>B. a. macdougalli Goodwin, 1956 — Mexico (Tehuantepec, Oaxaca).</p> <p>B. a. nevadensis G. S. Miller, 1913 — USA (Nevada &amp; Utah).</p> <p>B. a. octavus Hall, 1926 — USA (S California).</p> <p>B. a. palmarius Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1909 — Mexico (Baja California).</p> <p>B. a. raptor Baird, 1859 — USA (N California &amp; S Washington).</p> <p>B. a. saxicola Merriam, 1897 — Mexico (Espiritu Santo I).</p> <p>B. a. willetti Stager, 1950 — USA (SW California &amp; E Arizona).</p> <p>B. a. yumanensis Huey, 1937 — USA (Gila Mts, Arizona).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 30-37 cm, tail 31-44 cm; weight 0-87.1-1 kg. Ringtails are slimmer than cats but more robust than weasels, with incredibly long, bushy, black and white tails. This combination is unmistakable, and Ringtails are only likely to be confused with their congeners, Cacomistles. The two species are sympatric in part of their range, but can be distinguished by a number of characters. Ringtails are about one fourth smaller, with more contrasting facial and tail markings, and longer hindlimbs, which gives them a downward slanting profile from rump to nose. The body color of Ringtails is grayish above and white or buff below. Cacomistles are browner above and gray or tan below. The feet of the two species are also different, reflecting their different habitats, with Ringtails having short, straight, semi-retractile claws and digital foot pads surrounded by hair except behind the first digits. Finally, the Ringtail tail has black rings of uniform size, which are broken by white on the ventral surface, whereas the Cacomistle tail has unbroken black rings and the distal one third ofthe tail is nearly uniformly black. Within their range, the Ringtail coat color varies in predictable ways in being darker in forests, higher elevations, and higher latitudes and lighter in drier habitats, lower elevations and in the south of its range.</p> <p>Habitat. Ringtails use a variety of habitats characterized by rocky outcroppings, canyons, or talus slopes. These include montane conifer forests, riparian areas, dry tropical habitats, chaparral, and deserts, including small urban nature preserves. They are typically found from sea level to 1400 m but are occasionally reported to 2900 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Ringtails eat small animals and fruit. Their steady, gliding motion allows them to catch a variety of prey the size of hares and smaller including rodents, lizards, snakes, and birds. Ringtails pin prey to the ground with their forefeet and begin their meal by consuming the head. Their diet varies seasonally and regionally as they take advantage of opportunities including raiding bat caves, predating bird nests, and feeding on nectar from agave. Individual meals consumed by wild Ringtails have been estimated at 55-90 g; captive animals can be maintained on 25 g of cat food and raisins per day.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Ringtails are strongly nocturnal, with an aversion to daylight that begins soon after birth and persists through adulthood. Animals begin activity at or just after dusk and are back in their den sleeping before dawn, or within 45 minutes after daybreak.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. In high quality habitat Ringtails can live in densities of up to 20 ind/km? and use home ranges as small as 5 ha. However, densities are typically an order of magnitude lower, for example, 2-2—4-2 ind/km? in woodland habitat, where home ranges averaged 43 ha for males and 20 ha for females. Ringtails do not appear to be creatures of habit. They change dens frequently, rarely using the same rock crevice, hollow tree, or underground burrow for more than three consecutive days. In some areas their home ranges may also be dynamic, changing with the seasons, to the extent that some individuals use completely different areas from month to month. Ringtails appear to have a typical carnivore social structure with little sociality and males attempting to overlap and mate with one or more females. Telemetry studies suggest a social structure based on land tenure, with no signs of monogamy. Wild animals typically den separately, but can be kept together in captivity. Given their asocial tendencies most Ringtail communication is based on scent marks left in conspicuous places to denote territorial boundaries or communicate with potential mates. These marks include urine rubbed on the ground and on raised objects, and latrine areas with accumulated feces. These marks increase conspicuously just before and during the mating season. When they do encounter another animal, Ringtails may use a variety of generic vocalizations including squeaks, chucking and barks, hisses, grunts, growls, and metallic chirps.</p> <p>Breeding. Ringtails are monestrous, and females show a vulva tumescence one to two weeks before copulation. Breeding can occur anytime between February and May, but is typically in March or April. The female will become receptive to a male for 24-36 hours. In this time the male chases the female and copulates several times per hour, in a sitting position. Ringtails have the shortest gestation of any procyonid, at 51-54 days, leading to birth of a litter of 1-4 young in May or June. Newborns are altricial, with fuzzy hair on their back and sealed eyelids that open after 3—4 weeks. Deciduous teeth appear at 3-4 weeks, with permanent dentition growing in by 17-20 weeks. They begin to eat solid food at 30-40 days and are weaned at about ten weeks. Cubs can walk well at six weeks and climb by eight weeks. Ringtails typically reach sexual maturity at two years, although mating has been reported after just one year. Captive animals live for 12-14 years, with one animal reaching 16-5 years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern by The IUCN Red List. Ringtails are relatively common and widespread. In some regions they have adapted to find food and shelter in rural and urban habitats. They are harvested for their fur, although the fur is rated as poor quality and used only as trim.</p> <p>Bibliography. Barja &amp; List (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall &amp; Poglayen-Neuwall (1980), Poglayen-Neuwall &amp; Toweill (1988), Rodriguez-Estrella et al. (2000), Stake &amp; Cimprich (2003), Suzan &amp; Ceballos (2005), Toweill &amp; Teer (1972, 1977), Winkler &amp; Adams (1972).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAF014919F9F4E36A11D8F4	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAE014919D2FDA36448D23B.text	6A61FC4EFFAE014919D2FDA36448D23B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Bassariscus sumichrasti (Saussure 1860)	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Cacomistle</p> <p>Bassariscus sumichrasti</p> <p>French: Bassaris de Sumichrast / German: Mittelamerikanisches Katzenfrett /</p> <p>Spanish: Cacomixtle meridional</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bassaris sumichrasti Saussure, 1860,</p> <p>Veracruz, Mexico.</p> <p>Five subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>B.s. sumichrasti Saussure, 1860 — Mexico (Veracruz, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo &amp; Campeche).</p> <p>B. s. latrans Davis &amp; Lukens, 1958 — Mexico (Guerrero).</p> <p>B. s. notinus Thomas, 1903 — Costa Rica and Panama.</p> <p>B. s. oaxacensis Goodwin, 1956 — Mexico (Oaxaca).</p> <p>B. s. variabilis Peters, 1874 — S Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala and Belize to Costa Rica.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 38-50 cm,tail 39-55 cm; weight 0.7-1. 2 kg. Cacomistles are very similar to Ringtails in having slender gray bodies with bushy ringed tails. The two are distinguished by the Cacomistle being a bit larger, with less contrasting facial and tail markings, a browner back and tanner belly, and a shorter black muzzle. The rings on the tail of the Cacomistle also differ in being unbroken, and the distal one third ofthe tail is nearly uniformly black.</p> <p>Habitat. Tropical lowland wet forest to 2700 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Cacomistles are generalist feeders, eating roughly equal amounts of fruit and insects. They will opportunistically kill and eat very small vertebrate prey, and captive animals have caught and eaten free-flying birds within their enclosures.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Cacomistles are active in the mid and upperlayers of the forest canopy at night. Their activity begins immediately after sunset and continues at a relatively constant pace (60-75% active) until an hour or two before sunrise. Males are slightly more active than females. Cacomistles may not be strictly nocturnal, as some animals have been recorded vocalizing in the daytime.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Cacomistles in Costa Rica used an average home range size of 20 ha in a landscape of mixed forest and overgrown pasture. In another Costa Rican study, animals consistently moved approximately 2-5 km per night. Although individuals are typically solitary, there is extensive overlap between males and females, and between different males. Whether this overlap relates to family social groups is unknown. Multiple males can be kept together harmoniously in captivity. Cacomistles frequently vocalize with calls of 2-3 repeated syllables sounding like “uyoo-whaa” or “boyo-baa-wow”. These probably play both a territorial and spacing role, as wild animals will approach a playback of the call, but retreat if it is too loud. A variety of other social vocalizations have been described for captive animals. Scent is also an important mode of communication for Cacomistles, and marks are made in four different ways: urine, cheek glands, anal glands, and a strong overall body odor. This strong body odoris present only in males, and is a pungent, sweaty smell detectable by humans from 3-6 m away. Scent marking probably functions to communicate a variety of social messages. The fluid from the anal gland is stronger-smelling than in the Ringtail, and has been hypothesized as serving a defensive function.</p> <p>Breeding. Estrus in Cacomistles lasts about 44 days and is followed by a gestation period of about 63-65 days leading to a litter size of one. Young are able to walk with a wobbly gait after about one month, hop after about two months, and begin climbing in about their third month. Captive animals begin eating solid food between 48-60 days.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern by The IUCN Red List. Cacomistles are locally common, especially in the northern parts of their range.</p> <p>Bibliography. Coates-Estrada &amp; Estrada (1986), Garcia et al. (2002), Poglayen-Neuwall (1991, 1992a, 1992b), Poglayen-Neuwall &amp; Poglayen-Neuwall (1994), Reid (1997), Vaughan et al. (1994).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAE014919D2FDA36448D23B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAE014E19AAF3A36E11D5C1.text	6A61FC4EFFAE014E19AAF3A36E11D5C1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Nasua nasua (Linnaeus 1766)	<div><p>6.</p> <p>South American Coati</p> <p>Nasua nasua</p> <p>French: Coati brun / German: Nasenbar / Spanish: Coati rojo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Viverra nasua Linnaeus, 1766,</p> <p>America, later restricted to Pernambuco Brazil.</p> <p>Twelve subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>N. n. nasua Linnaeus, 1766 — French Guiana S through NE Brazil to N Bahia.</p> <p>N. n. dorsalis Gray, 1866 — Amazonian Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.</p> <p>N. n. arcana Vieira, 1945 — Brazil (Mato Grosso), Bolivia (Santa Cruz), Paraguay, and N Argentina.</p> <p>N. n. boliviensis Cabrera, 1956 — Bolivia (Cochabamba, the Yungas).</p> <p>N. n. candace Thomas, 1912 — Colombia.</p> <p>N. n. anerascens Lonnberg, 1921 — N Argentina (Chaco).</p> <p>N. n. manium Thomas, 1912 — Ecuador W of the Andes.</p> <p>N. n. montana Tschudi, 1844 — Peru.</p> <p>N. n. quichua Thomas, 1901 — S Ecuadorian Andes (Azuay).</p> <p>N. n. solitaria Schinz, 1821 — SE Brazil (Minas Gerais, S. Bahia), NE Argentina (Misiones).</p> <p>N. n. spadicea Olfers, 1818 — S Brazil and Uruguay.</p> <p>N. n. vittata Tschudi, 1844 — Venezuela, the Guianas.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 43-58 cm, tail 42-55 cm; weight 2.7-2 kg. Males larger than females. Coatis are unique in the animal world, with their long pointed snouts and ringed tails, which are typically held vertically. The South American Coatiis distinguished from the White-nosed Coati by having a brown or gray (not white) muzzle and in having hair on the neck in a reversed, anterior position. The South American Coati is also much larger than the Mountain Coati. The pelage coloration of South American Coats is variable across their range, and even within a litter. They are always brownish, but range from orangish or reddish to very dark brown, often with yellow highlights. The rings in the tail may be strongly or weakly evident.</p> <p>Habitat. Found in a variety of forested habitats including rainforest, riverine gallery forest, cloud forest, and xeric Chaco, cerrado, and dry scrub forests up to 2500 m elevation.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Omnivorous feeders, South American Coatis eat a wide variety of invertebrates and fruit including larval beetles, scorpions, spiders, centipedes, and coleopterans. Rodents, fish, crabs, and carrion have also been reported. The most detailed study of South American Coati diet comes from south-eastern Brazil, where 226 fecal samples included plant parts (854%), insects (75:7%), millipedes (53-9%), 49 species of fruits (48:7%), spiders (33-6%), organic waste (9-7%), vertebrates (9-3%), and gastropods (2:6%). There was considerable variation over the year, with spider and millipede consumption increasing with rainfall, and fruits being an important food during periods of arthropod scarcity. Coatis are skilled at rolling noxious invertebrates in the leaf litter with their forepaws to remove spines, but will also reject some invertebrate species that emit noxious fluids or smells. A variety of bird species, including hawks, trogons, woodcreepers, and tanagers, have been observed following coati bands. These birds capture prey trying to escape the foraging coatis.</p> <p>Activity patterns. This diurnal species spends nights in the trees. Most reports suggest that South American Coatis spend most oftheir days active on the ground. However, a population in the Atlantic forest of Brazil was encountered in the trees 60% of the time, where they were observed hunting small prey from bromeliads.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The density of coatis across South America varies greatly. In some places it is one of the rarest mammals while in others it is among the most frequently observed. Published estimates range from 6-2-13 animals/km?®. Little is known about the movement patterns of South American Coatis, although one coati group in the Brazilian Atlantic forest had a home range of about 500ha. Females and their young travel in matrilineal bands of up to 65 individuals, although smaller (10-30) band sizes are typical. South American Coati groupstypically have one male, and he is the dominant animal in the group. Dominance is hierarchical according to age and sex, with male juveniles ranking second, followed by female juveniles, then adult females, and finally male and female subadults. The ability ofjuveniles to outrank larger adults comes from their aggressive defense of food resources and may not reflect “dominance” in the traditional sense as much as being “tolerated aggression”. Groups probably reduce the risk of predation to individual coatis through increased vigilance. For example, coatis frequently stop moving and silently look around with their heads raised to scan for predators. Animals at the edge of the group are more vigilant than those at the center, and animals at the front edge of the group were the most watchful. The primary predators of South American Coatis appear to be the larger felids, as coatis have been reported in the diet of the three largest predators in the region, Jaguars, Pumas, and Ocelots.</p> <p>Breeding. After a 74-77 day gestation period, females leave their social groups to give birth to young in a tree nest, and return to the group after five or six weeks. Littersize ranges from 1-7 and is typically 3-4. Allonursing has been observed in captivity. Pups can walk well by 24 days and begin climbing by about four weeks. Breeding is seasonal, but the timing varies across their range.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as species of Least Concern by The IUCN Red List. Coatis are hunted and are sometimes an important food source. If not hunted, they can flourish in disturbed habitat.</p> <p>Bibliography. Alves-Costa &amp; Eterovick (2007), Alves-Costa et al. (2004), Beisiegel (2001, 2007), Beisiegel &amp; Mantovani (2006), Bisbal (1986), Di Blanco &amp; Hirsch (2006), Gompper &amp; Decker (1998), Hirsch (2007a), Marquez &amp; Farina (2003), Michalski &amp; Peres (2005), Redford &amp; Stearman (1993), Roldan &amp; Simonetti (2001), Romero &amp; Aureli (2007), Trolle (2003), Yanosky &amp; Mercolli (1992).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAE014E19AAF3A36E11D5C1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFA9014F1CF0F2BD6C5ADEBC.text	6A61FC4EFFA9014F1CF0F2BD6C5ADEBC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Nasua narica (Linnaeus 1766)	<div><p>7.</p> <p>White-nosed Coati</p> <p>Nasua narica</p> <p>French: Coati a nez blanc / German: WeiRrissel-Nasenbéar / Spanish: Coati pizote</p> <p>Taxonomy. Viverra narica Linnaeus, 1766.</p> <p>“America” subsequently restricted to Achotal, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Ver acruz, Mexico.</p> <p>Its precise southernmost distribution and potential overlap with N. nasua are not well known. The Dwarf Coati, nelsoni, is sometimes considered a full species. Four subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>N. n. narica Linnaeus, 1766 — S Mexico, Central America, and N &amp; W Colombia.</p> <p>N. n. molaris Merriam, 1902 — Mexico and SW USA.</p> <p>N. n. nelsoni Merriam, 1901 — Mexico (Cozumel I).</p> <p>N. n. yucatanicaJ. A. Allen, 1904 — Mexico (Yucatan Peninsula).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 43-68 cm,tail 42-68 cm; weight 3.5-5. 6 kg. Males are about 20% larger than females. N. n. nelsoni, commonly referred to as the Dwarf Coati, is smaller: head-body 41.6-43. 7 cm, tail 32-:8-34. 8 cm. Coatis are unique in the animal world, with their long pointed snouts and upright, ringed tails. The White-nosed Coati is distinguished from the South American Coati by its white muzzle and in having hair on the neck in a normal posterior position. Pelage coloration is quite variable, ranging from pale to reddish to almost black, often overlaid with some yellow or silver. The rings in the tail may be strongly or weakly evident.</p> <p>Habitat. White-nosed Coatis occupy a variety of wooded habitats, especially tropical rainforests, ranging up to 2879 m. In the north they concentrate in riparian pinyonoak-juniper habitats, but occasionally range into deserts and savannas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. White-nosed Coatis are omnivorous, eating primarily invertebrates and fruit but also consuming vertebrates and carrion when available. In Panama, 44% of coati foraging was on leaf-litter invertebrates, 56% on fruit, and less than 1% on vertebrates. As they walk along searching for food they use their long snouts to constantly sniff in the leaf litter. Prey is dug up or extracted from debris. Animals with harmful bites or stings are often killed by rolling them between the paws, which also removes hairs or spiny projections. Coatis eat fallen fruit under trees, but also climb to pick fresh fruit. Although they are adept climbers, most (over 90%) of their foraging is done on the ground. At least one species of bird, an understory hawk,is thought to associate with bands of White-nosed Coatis to hunt prey fleeing foraging coatis. Whitenosed Coatis have been observed grooming themselves with the resin of Trattinnickia aspera, presumably for some pharmaceutical value.</p> <p>Activity patterns. White-nosed Coatis are primarily diurnal, spending the night hiding in trees or rocky ledges. They spend about 90% of their waking hours foraging, although they may take rests of up to two hours in the high-fruit season.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The amount of space used by coatis is flexible across their range, with population averages varying from 0-33 to 13-5 km? in different habitats. The high end of this variation is in Arizona, where home range size averaged 13-5 km?* for bands, 6-1 km? for solitary males, and did not fluctuate greatly between seasons or years. In Mexican dry forest home range size averaged 3-8 km? and was not different between males and bands in total area. Bands used roughly half as much area in the wet season, although males did not change ranging behavior seasonally. Additionally, range size varied greatly (from 45 and 362 ha) within the dry forest in ways that were notrelated to food abundance, butto the dispersion of water sources during the dry season. In Panamanian rainforest, home range size averaged about 0-33 km*® for both males and females. Coatis are among the most gregarious of the Carnivora. White-nosed Coati groups have been reported as large as 30, although 5-18 animals are more typical. These matrilineal groups, known as bands, are composed primarily of related females and their offspring. Some non-relatives may also be in the band, although they receive more aggression, and less coalition support, from other band members. The size of groups fluctuates over time due to mortality, newly born juveniles, and emigrating subadult males. Large groups often split into subgroups that separate for several hours or days, and sometimes fission permanently into two groups. Fusion of previously separate groups has also been noted, although groups are typically slightly antagonistic to neighboring groups. Most males are solitary, and are usually chased awayif they approach female groups. However, some males are tolerated, and groups may have a few adult males associating with them. These are typically older offspring remaining in their natal home range and they do notsire offspring with the group. They may associate with groupsto take advantage of grooming or for the safety in numbers. Group members show a variety of cooperative behaviors including shared parental care, grooming, shared vigilance, and cooperative attacks on potential predators. Food is not shared between adults, although juveniles are tolerated by feeding animals. Group members do not cooperate to hunt invertebrates and females are actually more efficient when hunting away from the group. However, grouping may help the smaller females gain access to fruiting trees, as groups cooperate to chase away larger males that would otherwise be dominant in one-on-one interactions. Reducing predation risk seems to be a universal benefit of grouping in coatis. For example, in dry forests larger coati groups can drink more at water holes, a focal point for predators. Predation rates can be high, causing more than 50% of deaths in some populations in Mexico and Arizona. Predation rates are highest on solitary coatis and nexthighest on small groups, with larger groups having the lowest predation rate. These lower rates result from a suite of anti-predator behaviors, including foraging with the Juveniles in the center of the group, sharing vigilance, and alarm calling, and mobbing and attacking predators. Given their diurnal and social tendencies,it is not surprising that White-nosed Coatis have a rich repertoire of specific vocalizations for aggression, appeasement, alarm, and sexual contact. The two most common calls are chirps and squawks. Squawks are longer-duration, low-maximum frequency, wide-bandwidth calls with six resonances and little frequency modulation. Chirps are tonal calls of shorter duration, with frequency modulations. Chirps are high frequency, extending above the human hearing range into ultrasonic frequencies (30-55 kHz). They seem to function as contact calls, being emitted only while bands of coatis are moving. The short duration and high frequency of the calls may allow for contact with nearby group members while minimizing auditory detection by predators. Unique features of each coati’s chirp also may allow individual recognition. Like most Carnivora, coatis are also known to scent-mark. Males mark with a perineal gland throughout the year, while females primarily mark only before the mating season.</p> <p>Breeding. Breeding is highly seasonal in White-nosed Coatis, typically within a 2-4 week period. This occursin late January in Panama. Mating has been observed in the trees and on the ground. The mating system for coatis in Tikal National Park, Guatemala has been described as a mobile lek, with aggregations of males following female bands and climbing into the trees above them to display. Male vocalizations were similar to the alarm calls given by coatis in bands, but they were repeated steadily for many minutes at a time, not given in several-second bursts as in alarm situations. Females then selected one of these males to mate, by climbing up into the tree where he was displaying. This unique behavior has not been described for other coati populations, so it is unclear how widespread it is. Females can first breed at 22 months, but often wait another year or two depending on ecological conditions. Males can first mate at 34 months, but because of competition for matings, may not be successful until they are four or five years old; some males are probably never able to breed. Females leave their bandsto give birth in a tree after a 70-77 day gestation period. Young coatis begin to walk at eleven days and are able to rejoin the band with their mothers by 40 days. Litter size is 1-6, although some die before rejoining the band. Most females rejoin the band with an average of 3-5 juveniles. Females nurse for up to four months, and will nurse and care for offspring from other band members. Young males leave the band and becomesolitary after about two years. Animals in captivity have lived to 17 years, and to at least nine in the wild.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Most White-nosed Coatis are classified as a species of Least Concern by The IUCN Red List as they are widespread and often common in a variety of habitats. Their groups are vulnerable to hunting, but can thrive in fragmented habitats if not persecuted. One subspecies, nelsoni, is restricted to Cozumel Island, Mexico, where the total population is estimated at only 150 animals, and 1s listed as Endangered.</p> <p>Bibliography. Booth-Binczik et al. (2004a, 2004b), Burger &amp; Gochfeld (1992), Chapman (1935), Compton et al. (2001), Cuaron et al. (2004), Gompper (1995, 1996, 1997), Gompper &amp; Hoylman (1993), Gompper &amp; Krinsley (1992), Gompper et al. (1997, 1998), Hass (2002b), Hass &amp; Valenzuela (2002), Kaufmann (1962), Maurello et al. (2000), Ratnayeke et al. (1994), Valenzuela &amp; Ceballos (2000), Valenzuela &amp; Macdonald (2002), Wright et al. (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFA9014F1CF0F2BD6C5ADEBC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFA8014F1CAFF722658BD8C8.text	6A61FC4EFFA8014F1CAFF722658BD8C8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Nasuella olivacea (Gray 1865)	<div><p>8.</p> <p>Mountain Coati</p> <p>Nasuella olivacea</p> <p>French: Coati des montagnes / German: Berg-Nasenbar / Spanish: Coati oliva</p> <p>Taxonomy. Nasua olivacea Gray, 1865;</p> <p>Santa Fé de Bogota, Colombia.</p> <p>Three subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>N. o. olivacea Gray, 1865 — Colombia.</p> <p>N. o. meridensis Thomas, 1901 — Venezuela.</p> <p>N. o. quitensis Lonnberg, 1913 — Ecuador.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36-39 cm, tail 20-24 cm; weight 1.1-5 kg. Roughly half the size of Nasua, the Mountain Coati has a gray-brown back and 6-8 bands on the tail. Its snout is more elongated and comes to a sharper point than in other coati species, and the tip of its nose is naked.</p> <p>Habitat. Montane forests above 2000 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Primarily insectivorous, all 54 scat samples analyzed in Colombia contained insects, especially Coleoptera (41%), Orthoptera, Myriapoda, and Hymenoptera. Vertebrates and fruits were also eaten, each representing about 7% of the diet. Although all coati species find food on the forest floor, Mountain Coatis appear to be unique in leaving behind many small holes as they forage, with as many as 5000 being observed in one heavily foraged 35 m ® area. This may be related to their more elongated, sharper snouts.</p> <p>Activity patterns. From anecdotal reports, Mountain Coatis appear to be primarily diurnal and terrestrial, but this has not been studied in detail.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Because Mountain Coatis are sometimes seen in groups, and sometimes alone, they are presumed to have a social organization similar to other coatis, but there have been no studies on their behavior or movement patterns.</p> <p>Breeding. A litter size of four is reported but their breeding biology has not been studied.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. With only one published study from the field we know very little about Mountain Coatis and The IUCN Red List has classified them as Data Deficient. One report from Venezuela suggests that they may be vulnerable to habitat fragmentation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bisbal (1993), Linares (1998), Rodriguez-Bolanos et al. (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFA8014F1CAFF722658BD8C8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFA8014C19DCFD656F02DE3D.text	6A61FC4EFFA8014C19DCFD656F02DE3D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Potos flavus (Schreber 1774)	<div><p>9.</p> <p>Kinkajou</p> <p>Potos flavus</p> <p>French: Kinkajou / German: Wickelbar / Spanish: Kinkaju</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lemur flavus Schreber, 1774,</p> <p>Surinam.</p> <p>Seven subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P. f. flavus Schreber, 1774 — the Guianas.</p> <p>P. f. chapadensis J. A. Allen, 1904 — Amazonia.</p> <p>P. f. chiriquensisJ. A. Allen, 1904 — Central America and S Mexico.</p> <p>P. f. megalotus Martin, 1837 — Colombia and Panama.</p> <p>P. f. meridensis Thomas, 1902 — Venezuela.</p> <p>P. f. modestus Thomas, 1902 — W Ecuador.</p> <p>P. f. nocturnus Wied-Neuwied, 1826 — E Brazil.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 42-76 cm,tail 39-57 cm; weight 1-4—4-5 kg. Adult males are slightly larger than adult females. Atfirst look, the Kinkajou appears more like a monkey than a carnivore, and indeed, it was first described as a lemur. Kinkajous are honey-colored animals with large forward facing eyes, small forward facing ears, and muscular prehensile tails. They have uniform dark colored flanks that blend to lightercolored buffy underparts. Although 2-3 times larger than olingos, the two species can be confused as they run through treetops at night. The olingo shows a much sharper transition from dark dorsal fur to light ventral fur, and its non-prehensile tail is fluffy, not muscular like that of the Kinkajou. The Kinkajou’s fur is woolly, and, across its range, can be a variety of shades, including tawny olive, yellowish-tawny, clay colored, or wood brown. Many animals have a dark mid-dorsal stripe, and some animals in central Panama have a white-tipped tail. In seasonal forests the weight of individual Kinkajous fluctuates over the course of a year in synchrony with fruit availability.</p> <p>Habitat. Kinkajous are found in most tropical forest types that can produce fruit yearround. This includes rainforest, cloud forest, dry forest, and gallery forest. They have been found from sea level up to 2500 m. Kinkajous are strongly arboreal and rarely seen on the ground. They use all parts of the forest canopy.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Kinkajous are primarily frugivorous and nectivorous, although some consumption of insects has been recorded. Kinkajous select for larger, more productive fruiting trees. Fruit made up 90-99% ofthe diet of a population of Kinkajous in Panama, with the rest being nectar and leaves. Of the 78 species eaten from 29 families of plants, Moraceae was the most important, especially Ficus. Fruit and flowers were also the only food types observed from studies in French Guiana and Venezuela, making the Kinkajou one of the most frugivorous mammals. However, one report from Bolivia noted substantial amounts of ants from nine different species in the stomachs of six Kinkajous. All Kinkajou feeding is arboreal. An animal will sometimes hang by its prehensile tail and use both of its forepaws to handle fruit.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Kinkajous are among the most nocturnal animals. They typically emerge from their dens about 15 minutes after sunset and retire 15-30 minutes before sunrise. All activity is arboreal, and travelling between trees occupies 50-65% oftheir time, with the rest of their activity split between eating and resting.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Kinkajous have a flexible social structure, with individuals typically moving between trees alone, but socializing in groups at large feeding trees and day dens. Home range size varies from 10-50 ha, with males using slightly larger areas than females. Nightly travel distance averages about 2 km. Density of Kinkajous probably relates to the fruit production oflocal forests, and estimates from different forests range from 12-74 animals/km?*. Most Kinkajouslive in small, patrilineal groups consisting of two adult males, one adult female, a subadult, and a juvenile offspring. Additionally some females apparently live outside of stable groups and consort with males from neighboring social groups. Dispersal is femalebiased; young males appear to stay with their natal group, or disperse to a neighboring territory. Group members overlap regularly in home ranges, but separate each night for most foraging, thus reducing competition over food. During the course of the night group members meet up and socialize at large fruiting trees, where feeding competition is not important, with larger feeding groups, on average, in larger fruiting trees. Group members also socialize around day dens, where some group members sleep together at least 55% of the time. Kinkajous prefer to den in tree holes but have also been recorded making nests in palm trees. In Panama one Kinkajou group was observed using 44 different dens over the course of a year, preferentially sleeping in a few near the center of their range. Social behavior typically includes grooming bouts focused on the ears and head, where an animal can not groom itself. Grooming interactions are most frequent between adult and subadult males, and females and juveniles. In addition, males have been observed playing with juveniles from their group, including chases through the canopy and play-boxing while hanging by theirtails. Aggressive behavioris less common within social groups, but short fights between males have been observed. Neighboring social groups appear to strictly observe territorial boundaries. Aggression between neighboring females has been recorded, involving tree-top chases, with the subordinate animal eventually jumping to the forest floor to flee. Kinkajous communicate through vocalizations and specialized scent glands. Shortrange social interaction calls include brief hisses and screams. The long-range call is a two part “snort-weedle” consisting of one quick snort sound followed by a variable number of weedle vocalizations. This call is sometimes repeated for as long as 15 minutes. The snort-weedle sometimes appears to call-in other social group members, but may have other functions as well. Kinkajous also communicate through scent marks, which are made by three unique glands, one on their abdomen, one on their throat, and a pair of mandibular glands. These glands produce a subtle smell that is slightly fruity and musky. Given the three different types of scent glands, different marks probably have different purposes, which have been hypothesized to include territorial markers, trail markers, and sexual signals. Adult Kinkajous do not face high predation risk because they are generally too nocturnal for eagles, too large for owls, and too arboreal for large cats. Nonetheless, individuals occasionally venture too close to the ground, or are active in daylight, making themselves vulnerable to predation, and have been recorded in the diet ofJaguars, Ocelots and eagles.</p> <p>Breeding. Kinkajous do not have an obvious breeding season, although this may be masked by the variation in the timing of fruiting seasons across their large range. Kinkajous are polyestrous, with gestation times of 100-120 days, and typically give birth to one pup, although litters of two have been recorded. Pups are dependent on their mothers for an extensive period of time. They do not take solid food until eight weeks and are not fully mobile in the tree branches until they are three months old. Males have not been observed contributing to the care of offspring, and mothers apparently “park” the young pups alone in the trees while they forage. Male Kinkajous reach maturity at 1-5 years and females at 2-25 years. In captivity one Kinkajou lived for 40-5 years, although 20 years is more common.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Kinkajousare classified by The IUCN Red List as Least Concern. They are common over much oftheir range and are considered moderately sensitive to habitat fragmentation. They are occasionally hunted for meat but are not a preferred food item, and there is no market for their fur. Some animals are sold into the pet trade.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bisbal (1986), Daily et al. (2003), Ford &amp; Hoffmann (1988), Hernandez &amp; Porras (2005), Julien-Laferriére (1993, 2001), Kays (1999a, 1999b, 2000, 2003), Kays &amp; Gittlernan (1995, 2001), Kortlucke (1973), Naveda (1992), Poglayen-Neuwall (1962, 1966, 1976b), Redford &amp; Stearman (1993), Redford et al. (1989), Walker &amp; Cant (1977), Weckel et al. (2006).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFA8014C19DCFD656F02DE3D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAB014C1CF5F7AF675FDB22.text	6A61FC4EFFAB014C1CF5F7AF675FDB22.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procyon cancrivorus (Cuvier 1798)	<div><p>10.</p> <p>Crab-eating Raccoon</p> <p>Procyon cancrivorus</p> <p>French: Raton crabier / German: Krabbenwaschbér / Spanish: Mayuato</p> <p>Taxonomy. Ursus cancrivorus Cuvier, 1798 Cayenne,</p> <p>French Guiana.</p> <p>Four subspecies recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.c. cancrivorus Cuvier, 1798 — Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, the Guianas.</p> <p>P. c. aequatorialis J. A. Allen, 1915 — Ecuador.</p> <p>P. c. nigripes Mivart, 1886 — Amazonia to Argentina.</p> <p>P. c. panamensis Goldman, 1913 — Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 54-76 cm,tail 25-38 cm; weight 3.1-7. 7 kg. Crab-eating Raccoons are grayish, with the characteristic Raccoon black mask and black banded tail. Their legs and feet are dark brown, distinguishing Crab-eating Racoons from Northern Raccoons, which have white feet. Crab-eating Raccoons also are different in having the hair on the back of the neck slanting forward, appearing reversed, and a brownish throat.</p> <p>Habitat. Crab-eating Raccoons use a broad range of waterside habitats, including swamps, rivers, and beaches. They appear to be more strongly tied to water and less adapted to urban areas than the Northern Raccoon.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. In Venezuela Crab-eating Raccoons are recorded eating primarily aquatic prey, including crawfish, fish, and snails. In Brazil fruit was much more important (53% of diet), followed by a mixture of insects and vertebrate prey.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal, these raccoons sleep in tree holes during the day. Their nocturnal foraging is primarily on the ground around waterways. Of 55 raccoon camera trap photos recorded in Bolivia, 85% were nocturnal, 13% crepuscular, and only 2% diurnal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Usually solitary but sometimes seen in pairs or groups. No details are known abouttheir social organization.</p> <p>Breeding. Presumed to be similar to Northern Raccoons.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Considered Least Concern by The IUCN Red List, Crab-eating Raccoons are not adapted to urban life like their northern cousins, but are not highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation. They are the third most frequent species to be found as roadkill in southern Brazil.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bisbal (1986), Carrillo-Jimenez &amp; Vaughan (1993), Cherem et al. (2007), Dos Santos &amp; Hartz (1999), Gatti et al. (2006), Gomez et al. (2005), Lohmer (1976), Maffei et al. (2002), Marquez &amp; Farina (2003), Michalski &amp; Peres (2005), Mugaas et al. (1993), Srbek-Araujo &amp; Chiarello (2005), Yanosky &amp; Mercolli (1993).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAB014C1CF5F7AF675FDB22	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAB014D19F0FDDA6A4ED102.text	6A61FC4EFFAB014D19F0FDDA6A4ED102.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procyon lotor (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>11.</p> <p>Northern Raccoon</p> <p>Procyon lotor</p> <p>French: Raton laveur / German: \Waschbar / Spanish: Mapache comun</p> <p>Taxonomy. Ursus lotor Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Pennsylvania, USA.</p> <p>Historically, more than 50 types of Northern Raccoons have been named. However, more recent work has shown this species to have a high degree of morphological plasticity in the face of environmental variation. Caribbean forms were recently shown to be recent introductions from the east USA and are no longer considered unique species. The taxonomy of inland forms has not yet been revised with modern methods, so the twenty recognized subspecies remain poorly defined.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>P.l. lotor Linnaeus, 1758 — NE USA.</p> <p>P.l. auspicatus Nelson, 1930 — SE USA (Central Florida Keys).</p> <p>P. l. elucus Bangs, 1898 — SE USA (Florida).</p> <p>P. l. excelsus Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1930 — NW USA (in and near Idaho).</p> <p>P.l. fuscipes Mearns, 1914 —S USA (Texas) and NE Mexico (Tamaulipas, Coahuila).</p> <p>P.l. grinnelli Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1930 — Mexico (S Baja California).</p> <p>P. l. hernandezii Wagler, 1831 — Mexico.</p> <p>P.l. hirtus Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1930 — Central Plains of USA and Canada.</p> <p>P. l. incautus Nelson, 1930 — SE USA (W Florida Keys).</p> <p>P. l. inesperatus Nelson, 1930 — SE USA (E Florida Keys).</p> <p>P. l. insularis Merriam, 1898 — W Mexico (Maria Madre I).</p> <p>P.l. litoreus Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1930 — E USA (coastal Georgia).</p> <p>P. l. marinus Nelson, 1930 — SE USA (Florida Everglades).</p> <p>P. l. megalodous Lowery, 1943 — S USA (coastal Louisiana).</p> <p>P.l. pacificus Merriam, 1899 — NW USA.</p> <p>P. l. pallidus Merriam, 1900 — SW USA.</p> <p>P. l. psora Gray, 1842 — SW USA (California).</p> <p>P.l. pumilus G.S. Miller, 1911 — Central America.</p> <p>P. l. simus Gidley, 1906 — W USA (N California).</p> <p>P. l. vancouverensis Nelson &amp; Goldman, 1930 — SW Canada (Vancouver I).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 44-62 cm, tail 19-36 cm; weight 2:7-10. 4 kg. Northern Raccoons have relatively short ringed tails and striking black masks. Their body fur is grizzled gray, and often long. There may be some reddish color on the nape of the neck. Animals in arid areas are lighter in color, whereas those in humid forests are darker. The largest raccoons are in the north-west USA and the smallest are in the south-east.</p> <p>Habitat. Raccoons use a variety of habitat types, preferring waterways such as streams, rivers, lake shores, and wetlands. The have adapted well to urban habitats.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Northern Raccoons are among the most omnivorous mammals on Earth. They will take advantage of any locally abundant food source they can get their hands on, including fruits, nuts, grains, invertebrates, fish, and small terrestrial vertebrates. A variety of plant products make up a majority of their diet in all seasons. In urban areas raccoons are famous for ingenious ways of procuring garbage, and in rural areas, for raiding crops. In natural settings raccoons are typically tied to aquatic habitats, and aquatic invertebrates such as crabs and crayfish often make up a substantial portion of their diet. They occasionally catch frogs, lizards, snakes, and other terrestrial vertebrates, although these are rare in their diet compared with invertebrate prey. Raccoons are reported to be able to detect a single acorn buried under 5 cm of sand, and much of their animal food comes not after dramatic chases but from using their keen sense of smell to locate nests and predate eggs or nestlings. This can be a problem for the egg-layers in areas where raccoon density is elevated because of human subsidization. Nest predation has been implicated in reducing the population size of turtles, green iguanas, and some low-nesting bird species. The Raccoon’s keen nose also makes it a good scavenger, able to detect fresh carcasses. Competition with other omnivores is not obvious. Opossums did not change population parameters, diet, or habitat use in an area where raccoons had been removed. Food passes through the raccoon digestive system in 9-14 hours, long enough to make it probable that they function as important seed dispersers for the fruit plants they feed on. Northern Raccoons received their species name, lotor, meaning “the washer”, because they are thought to wash their food before eating it. They are fond of dunking their food, although there is no indication this has any washing function, since they submerge both clean and dirty foods. One alternative hypothesis is that getting their hands wet increases the pliability of the skin on their fingers, thus increasing theirtactile sensitivity. Indeed, raccoons use their dexterous hands to procure much of their food, prying under rock on stream bottoms or into garbage cans.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Raccoons are primarily nocturnal, with activity peaking slightly before midnight. However, they will venture out in daylight to take advantage of food sources, for example, to forage at low tide. In cold areas raccoons may enter a dormant period during winter, spending weeks or months in a den. This is not hibernation, as their heart rate and body temperature do not decrease. Instead, they burn through stored body fat to maintain themselves over this period, sometimes losing more than 50% of their mass during winter.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Raccoon populations have increased and spread substantially over the past century. Their numbers were at an alltime low in the 1920s and 1930s following severe persecution for the fur trade. Game management regulations allowed them to begin their recovery in the 1940s, and by the 1980s their populations were estimated to be twenty times larger than in the 1930s.</p> <p>Their range expanded, too, and they are now found in nearly all of the lower 48 states, including deserts and mountain regions where they had previously been rare or absent. The spread of agriculture and concurrent decline of the Gray Wolf and Puma were probably both important factors in the increase and spread of the raccoon. The raccoon is one of the most successful native species at adapting to urban and rural environments, but raccoons also occur in wilderness. Densities in natural areas have been estimated as 0-5—4 ind/km? in northern prairies and 3-5-6 ind/km* in hardwood forests. Their populations increase where they can find anthropogenic food sources. These subsidized densities range from 1-27 ind/km? for rural areas and 50-100 ind/ km? in cities. Some estimates from urban parks are as high as 333 ind/km?, although these calculations do not take into account the area used by raccoons outside of the park. In Chicago, densities were typically one third higher in the autumn than in the spring, reflecting the litters born in the summer and mortalities that occurred during the winter. The higher densities in urban areas are caused by a combination of demographic factors, including increased survival, higher annual recruitment, and increased site fidelity. These factors are all encouraged by the raccoon’s ability to learn how to take advantage of abundant anthropogenic food, and apparently also by high levels of intraspecific tolerance. Most individuals in a population are under two years old, and few reach as old as seven years. Some trapping studies found a male-biased sex ratio, but subsequent research suggests that this result may have occurred because the males were more trappable, and females actually outnumber males in most populations. Corresponding with their higher densities, urban raccoons typically use smaller home ranges than rural animals: 5-79 ha compared to 50-300 ha, often focusing their activities around a few select sources of anthropogenic food. Wilderness animals use even larger home ranges, averaging between 800-2500 ha in North Dakota, where individuals were recorded travelling as far as 14 km in one night. Typical nocturnal movements cover less ground and consist of a few periods of rapid movement between den and feeding sites, followed by more lengthy periods of small, localized movements at foraging sites. Patterns of home range overlap and social organization in raccoons vary predictably with density and available resources. Female raccoons appear to space themselves out according to the available food, and sometimes water, resources. Where food is rare or scattered females are more solitary. Where food is more abundant, and many individuals are able to share space without competing for food, related females may overlap more in home range and occasionally interact during nocturnal foraging or in diurnal resting dens. Males adopt strategies that allow them to maximize their individual fitness, given this distribution of females. In low densities, males will set up territories and defend them against other males, attempting to gain exclusive access to the female (s) they spatially overlap. In areas with medium densities of females, males cannot defend a territory alone, and they share space with other males. One study found that 3-4 of these overlapping males formed stable bonds that lasted for several years. These male groups frequently travelled and denned together, overlapping many different females, but no other males. The raccoon mating system appears to vary across these situations, between polygyny in low density areas and promiscuity in higher density areas. In the polygynous systems males compete for access to estrous females within a predictable dominance hierarchy related to body weight and canine width. In promiscuous systems females mate with multiple males, and most litters (88% in one study) have multiple paternities. The primary predators of adult raccoons were probably Gray Wolves and Pumas. The extinction of these large predators from many areas, especially in urban or rural areas, probably freed raccoons from substantial predation risk throughout much oftheir range. Raccoons and Coyotes are sympatric over much of their ranges, but the nature of interactions appears to be variable. In Kansas, 40% of raccoon mortalities came from Coyote predation, and raccoons make up a substantial portion of the diet of Coyotes in some parts of Ohio and Maine (some of this may be scavenging on roadkill). However, most studies of Coyote diet find little evidence of raccoon predation, and other studies of raccoon mortality have found no Coyote predation. One detailed study of raccoon and Coyote movements in Illinois found no avoidance by raccoons ofareas preferred by Coyotes, or of their scent marks. In some areas, humans have replaced other predators as the major cause of death, either through directed hunting, or accidental deaths such as road kills. Disease has also been found to be important in a number of raccoon populations. Diseases spread more easily between individuals living at high density,so it is not surprising that disease can spread rapidly in urban raccoon populations. Raccoon rabies has been one of the most dramatic examples of wildlife disease in North America. From the 1950s to 1970s a strain of raccoon rabies spread slowly northward out of Florida into Georgia. In 1980, an illegal translocation of 3500 raccoons from Florida to Virginia for hunting purposes set off an epidemic. Apparently at least one of these animals was harboring the rabies virus, and an outbreak spread at a rate of 40km /year up the Atlantic coast, north into Ontario and west into Ohio and Pennsylvania. This epidemic has caused high mortality in urban raccoons, noticeably reducing their populations in some areas, and also spilled over to impact other wildlife, pets, and humans. Another species that suffers from parasite spillover from superabundant raccoons has been the Allegheny Woodrat (Neotoma magister). Woodrats suffer high mortality from infections of raccoon roundworm parasites, which have little effect on the raccoons themselves. Woodrats pick up the parasites while feeding on seeds from raccoon latrines. Raccoons do not habitually sing or call out, but do have a variety of vocalizations that occur during close-range social interactions, including a twittering used by females to encourage their young to follow them away from the den. Scent marking is probably the most important means of communication. Raccoons have paired anal scent glands for this purpose, but also use feces, urine, and other specialized skin glands. In some areas raccoons defecate in habitual latrines, although it is unclear if these serve a social function or are just a by-product of high raccoon density.</p> <p>Breeding. Northern Raccoons are spontaneous ovulators. Mating typically occurs in February and March, although being consummate opportunists, litters can also be conceived outside of this period. In Texas many females with litters that failed in the spring came into a second estrus later in the year, resulting in a second, but smaller, breeding pulse in the population. Mating appears to be the only time males and females associate. Males consort with females over a period of 1-3 days, with females serially visiting and copulating with more than one male during this time. Gestation averages 63 days (range 54-70) and mostlitters have 3—4 cubs,typically from multiple fathers. Newborns eat solid food at nine weeks but nursing continues until 16 weeks. Cubsfirst leave the nest at 6-7 weeks and often spend much of their first autumn travelling alone. Many juveniles return to mom for winter denning, ultimately dispersing when she comes into estrus the following spring. Males disperse to new areas, covering distances averaging 11 km, although distances up to 275 km have been reported. Females often stick close to home, overlapping in some or all of their home ranges, and sometimes reuniting in winter to form extensive communal dens.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Raccoons are considered Least Concern by The [UCN Red List since they are among the most abundant medium-sized mammals in their range. Because of their abundance they have been one of the most economically important furbearers in North America, with fur harvests in 1930s and 1940s ranging between 0-4-2 million skins annually and reaching an all-time high of 5-1 million in 1979/80. However, because of their high reproductive potential and ability to exploit human settlements they saw no obvious broad scale population reductions from this harvest. The fur trade has declined in the last two decades and raccoons are now widely viewed as urban pests, potentially dangerous because of rabies. Their subsidized populations near human settlements may cause conservation problems for other species due to disease spillover or nest predation. Through breeding for the fur trade they have become established as an invasive species in Europe, Russia, and Japan. They are also an introduced species on some Caribbean islands, where they endanger native island fauna not adapted to dealing with a mammalian predator with a keen sense of smell.</p> <p>Bibliography. Chamberlain et al. (1999), DeVault et al. (2004), Gehrt (2003, 2004), Gehrt &amp; Clark (2003), Gehrt &amp; Fritzell (1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b), Gehrt &amp; Prange (2007), Helgen &amp; Wilson (2003), Helgen, Maldonado et al. (2008), Ikeda et al. (2004), Kamler &amp; Gipson (2004), Kasparian, Hellgren &amp; Ginger (2002), Kasparian, Hellgren, Ginger, Levesque et al. (2004), Kennedy &amp; Lindsay (1984), LoGiudice (2006), Nielsen &amp; Nielsen (2007), Prange et al. (2004), Ratnayeke et al. (2002), Rogers &amp; Caro (1998), Schmidt (2003), Smith et al. (2006), Zeveloff (2002).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAB014D19F0FDDA6A4ED102	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
6A61FC4EFFAA014D19A9F7F96B39D44C.text	6A61FC4EFFAA014D19A9F7F96B39D44C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Procyon pygmaeus Merriam 1901	<div><p>12.</p> <p>Cozumel Raccoon</p> <p>Procyon pygmaeus</p> <p>French: Raton de Cozumel / German: Cozumel-Waschbar / Spanish: Mapache de Cozumel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Procyon pygmaeus Merriam, 1901,</p> <p>Cozumel Island, Mexico.</p> <p>Recent genetic evidence suggests that P. pygmaeus is a relatively recent addition to Cozumel, in the last 50,000 years, but was likely present well before Mayans populated this region. It has always been considered a unique species because of its smaller size. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Known only from Mexico (Cozumel I).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-43 cm, tail 22-25 cm; weight averages 3-7 kg (males), 3-3 kg (females). Cozumel Raccoons lookjust like Northern Raccoons, but are smaller. Compared with nearby raccoons from the Yucatan area, Cozumel Raccoons are 15% smaller.</p> <p>Habitat. Use the mangrove and coastal wetlands on Cozumel Island.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Both isotopic data and scat analyses suggest an omnivorous diet, with crabs being the most important (more than 50%) item followed by fruits and insects. Raccoonsliving near humans are approximately 0-5 kg heavier, suggesting that they may be using anthropogenic foods.</p> <p>Activity patterns. No details on Cozumel Raccoon activity have been reported.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing is known specifically about behavior; it is presumed to be similar to that of Northern Raccoons.</p> <p>Breeding. Lactating females have been recorded May-July.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List due to their restricted range and small population numbers. The population of raccoons on Cozumel Island is estimated to be fewer than 250 adults.</p> <p>Bibliography. Cuaron et al. (2004), McFadden (2004), McFadden, Sambrotto et al. (2006), McFadden, Wade et al. (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/6A61FC4EFFAA014D19A9F7F96B39D44C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Procyonidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 504-530, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714404
