identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86.text	038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustelidae Fischer 1817	<div><p>Family MUSTELIDAE</p> <p>(WEASELS AND RELATIVES)</p> <p>• Small- to medium-sized mammals with long bodies and short limbs.</p> <p>• 13-195 cm.</p> <p>• Holarctic, Neotropical, African, and Oriental regions.</p> <p>• Forests, grasslands, tundras and oceans, from the Arctic to the tropics.</p> <p>• 22 genera, 57 species, at least 217 extant taxa.</p> <p>• 7 species Endangered, 5 species Vulnerable; 1 species Extinct since 1600.</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA50FFBFCB303E15F9A0FA86	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.text	038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Taxidea taxus (Schreber 1777) Waterhouse 1839	<div><p>1.</p> <p>American Badger</p> <p>Taxidea taxus</p> <p>French: Blaireau d’Amérique / German: Amerikanischer Dachs / Spanish: Tejon americano</p> <p>Taxonomy. Ursus taxus Schreber, 1778,</p> <p>Canada.</p> <p>Four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>T. t. taxus Schreber, 1778 — S Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario &amp; Saskatschewan) and NC USA.</p> <p>T. t. berlandieri Baird, 1858 — N &amp; C Mexico and SC USA (W of the Mississippi River).</p> <p>T. t. jacksoni Schantz, 1946 — NE USA (Great Lakes Region).</p> <p>T. t. jeffersonii Harlan, 1825 — W USA (NW to California).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 42-72 cm, tail 10-15.5 cm; weight 7.6-8.7 kg (males), 6.3-7.1 kg (females), adult males weigh on average 25% more than females. The American Badger’s body appears flat dorso-ventrally, with a flat head, and shorttail and limbs. The upperparts are grayish-white to yellowish-brown orsilvery black; the underparts are buffy. The feet are dark brown to black. Black patches are present on the face, cheeks, chin, and throat. A dorsal white stripe runs from the nose to the neck, and in some populations, to the rump. The claws on the forefeet are long and strong. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is wedge-shaped, almost triangular. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M1/2=34</p> <p>Habitat. American Badgers are found in grasslands, prairie habitats, shrubs and steppes, and open woodlands. In British Columbia, they prefer open range and agricultural habitats that have fine sandy-loam and well-drained soils.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals (especially marmots, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, chipmunks, and squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (insects and molluscs). Carrion is also eaten. In British Columbia, the six main prey species are the Columbian Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus), Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota Slaviventris), Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Southern Red-backed Vole (Myodes gapperi), and Meadow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus). In south-eastern Wyoming, prairie dogs were found in 57% of stomach and fecal samples from female American Badgers. The most common food item in the diet in west-central Minnesota and south-eastern North Dakota is small mammals (98%, primarily Muridae and Geomyidae). Other prey includes insects (40%), and birds and eggs (32%, mostly ducks Anatidae). Reptiles, amphibians and molluscs are also eaten, but are less common than other foods. Insects and birds’ eggs are more common in the diet during spring (April-May) than summer (June-July). Birds are more frequent in the diets of adults than juveniles. In South Dakota, 40% of stomach contents were mammals, 35% were of plant origin, 10% were birds, 10% were insects, and the remainder was mostly inorganic materials. American Badgers obtain most of their food by excavating the burrows of fossorial animals. If large prey is taken, such as a rabbit, the badger may dig a hole, carry in the prey, and remain below ground with it for several days. There are reports of American Badgers forming a “hunting partnership” with Coyotes. The Coyote apparently usesits keen sense of smell to locate burrowing rodents and the American Badger digs them up with its powerful claws. Both predators then share the proceeds. The techniques used by American Badgers when hunting Richardson’s Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii) have been observed. They frequently hunted hibernating squirrels in the autumn, sometimes hunted infants in the spring, but rarely hunted active squirrels in the summer. They always captured hibernating and active squirrels underground, but sometimes intercepted fleeing squirrels aboveground. The most common hunting technique used was excavation of the burrow, but plugging of openings accounted for 5-23% of hunting actions. Plugging occurred predominantly in mid-June to late July, before most ground squirrels hibernated, and in late August to late October when juvenile males were active, but other squirrels were in hibernation. American Badgers usually used soil from around the tunnel opening or soil dragged 30-270 cm from a nearby mound to plug tunnels. Theykill ground squirrels with a single grasping bite directed dorsally or laterally to the thorax. The canines and third upper incisors generally only bruise the skin, without puncturing it, but cause extensive hemorrhaging in the thoracic cavity. Food items are sometimes buried and eaten later.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, but can be active at any hour. American Badgers rest underground in burrows; these are either self-excavated or are modified burrows that were initially made by another animal. The burrow can be as long as 10 m and can extend 3 m below the surface. A bulky nest of grass is located in an enlarged chamber; the entrances are marked by mounds of earth. American Badgers are active all year, but during severe winter weather they may sleep in the den for several days or weeks.</p> <p>During this period of inactivity, heart rates are reduced by 50% and the body temperature decreases by 9 °C.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Daily movement may exceed 10 km and dispersal movements may be greater than 100 km. Mean home range size is up to 12- 3 km? for males and up to 3-4 km? for females. Home ranges overlap, but adults are solitary except during the breeding season. In Utah, mean home range size was 5-83 km? the mean size of female home ranges (2-37 km?) was less than half that of the males. In Idaho, mean home range size was 2-4 km? for males and 1-6 km? for females. In south-eastern Wyoming, the mean home range size of females (3-4 km?) was smaller than that of males (12- 3 km?); mean overlap was less for females than for males, and the mean home rangesize of males was larger during the breeding season than during the non-breeding season (breeding = 11- 1 km?non-breeding = 5- 4 km?). A radio-tracked female in Minnesota used an area of 752 ha during the summer. She had 50 dens within this area and was never found in the same den on two consecutive days. In the autumn, she shifted to an adjacent area of 52 ha and often reused dens. In the winter, she used a single den and traveled infrequently within an area of 2 ha. Population density may be as high as 5/km?. In south-eastern Wyoming, the density varies between 0-8-1-1/km?.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in late July or August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until December—February, and births take place in late March or early April. The total gestation period is about seven months; actual embryonic development is about six weeks. Litter size is one to five, usually two. The young are born underground in a nest of dry grass. They are weaned at aboutsix weeks and disperse soon after. Some young females may mate in the first breeding season following birth, when they are about four months old; males wait until the following year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. American Badgers are considered common. Although this species haslittle importance in the fur trade,it is harvested for its fur in many parts of its range. American Badgers are also persecuted because of the damage they do to pasture and agricultural land.</p> <p>Bibliography. Anderson &amp; Johns (1977), Armitage (2004), Azevedo et al. (2006), Eldridge (2004), Goodrich &amp; Buskirk (1998), Harlow (1981), Hart &amp; Trumbo (1983), Hoodicoff (2006), Lampe (1982), Lindzey (1978, 2003), Long (1973), Long &amp;Killingley (1983), Messick &amp; Hornocker (1981), Michener (2004), Michener &amp; Iwaniuk (2001), Minta (1993), Minta et al. (1992), Murie (1992), Sargeant &amp; Warner (1972), Sovada et al. (1999), Van Vuren (2001), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA52FFBDCAFD3E0AF9D4F996	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.text	038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mellivora capensis Schreber 1776	<div><p>2.</p> <p>Honey Badger</p> <p>Mellivora capensis</p> <p>French: Ratel / German: Honigdachs / Spanish: Ratel</p> <p>Other common names: Ratel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Viverra capensis Schreber, 1776,</p> <p>Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.</p> <p>Ten subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. c. capensis Schreber, 1776 — S Africa N to Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia.</p> <p>M. c. buechneri Baryshnikov, 2000 — C Asia including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.</p> <p>M. c. concisa Thomas &amp; Wroughton, 1907 — Algeria, Morocco, and Subsaharan Africa from Mauritania to Ethiopia.</p> <p>M.c. cotton: Lydekker, 1906 — C Africa from Gabon to Tanzania.</p> <p>M. M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836 — Nepal.</p> <p>\g M.c. indica Kerr, 1792 — India and Pakistan.</p> <p>M. M.c. maxwell Thomas, 1923 — Kenya and Somalia.</p> <p>\J M.c. pumalio Pocock, 1946 — S Arabian Peninsula and Yemen.</p> <p>M. M.c. signata Pocock, 1909 — Guinea and Sierra Leone.</p> <p>\f M.c. wilsoni Cheesman, 1920 — Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 73: 3-95 cm (males), 81.2-96 cm (females), tail 14.3-23 cm (males), 15.2-22.5 cm (females); weight 7.7-10.5 kg (males), 6.2-13.6 kg (females). The Honey Badger is a short, stocky animal, with strong limbs and a short tail. The upperparts, from the top of the head to the base of the tail, are gray to pale yellow or whitish, and contrast sharply with the dark brown or black of the underparts. Completely black individuals have been reported from some parts of Africa. The tail is black, with a gray or white tip. The front feet are broad, with strong, long claws (&gt; 25 mm), whereas the hindfeet have small claws (15 mm). There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is massive, with short orbital processes and robust teeth. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,.P 3/3, M1/1 =32.</p> <p>Habitat. Honey Badgers are found in diverse habitats including deep forests, subtropical dry evergreen forests, tropical thorn forests, open Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia woodlands, open riparian woodland (dominated by Acacia albida), Tarai or marshes, floodplain grasslands (dominated by Vetivaria nigritana), bushveld, afro-alpine steppes, rocky hills and kopjes, Rhigozum scrub sandveld, savannah, dry swamps, waterless sandplains, coastal sandveld, and deserts. They tolerate habitats with a rainfall of over 2000 mm (annually) as well as arid areas with less than 100 mm annual rainfall. Honey Badgers are found from sea level up to 4050 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mostly mammals, insects, amphibians, reptiles and birds, but also includes roots, berries, and fruit (such as ber Zizyphusjubata). Favorite foods are honey and the larvae of honeybees (Hymenoptera). However, their adaptation to burrowing, together with the abundance of subterranean animals found in six stomachs, suggests that honey is only a secondary food item. Consumption of honey may also be seasonal because it is more widely available in the drier months of the year. In October and November, Honey Badgers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, South Africa, were found to eat mainly rodents, which occurred in 60% of scats and made up c. 30% of the volume of food. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, Spring Hares (Pedetes capensis), Meerkats, as well as domestic sheep and goats, were also eaten. They are strong diggers, and do not hesitate to dig after rodents or other prey hiding underground. Food items are detected mostly by smell or sound. Excess food may be cached in a den. When Honey Badgers eat, the food is held between the front claws while the forelegs rest on the ground. Beehives are opened by tearing away the wood of trees; honey combs are also scooped out from the cracks of rocks with the claws of the forefeet. Grubs are removed from the comb with their incisors. The clay capsules of estivating lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus), cases of insect pupae, carapaces of turtles, or skins of animals are peeled away to expose the softer inner parts to be eaten. Honey Badgers dig large spiders out of holes 15-25 cm deep in the ground. Fish are caught with the claws at the edge of streams or from drying pans. They may raid campgrounds or dumpsters at night and are widely blamed for breaking into poultry houses and apiaries. The anecdotal relationship between the Honey Badger and a bird, the greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator), may be mythical. Although these two animals may occur together at the nests of bees, a complete observation of this supposed symbiotic relationship, from the initial attraction by a greater honeyguide of a Honey Badger, through guiding to a nest by the honeyguide, to the breaking open of the nest by the Honey Badger does not exist.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal, although diurnal observations are numerous. Honey Badgers shelter in burrows, thick brush, caves, clumps of fallen bamboo, hollow trees, old ruins, rock shelters, dens excavated by themselves, or abandoned burrows. Hollow trees are entered from the top.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Honey Badgers are good swimmers and can chase turtles underwater. They can also climb trees. Daily movements average 10-30 km, with males covering longer distances than females. Female Honey Badgers forage in a relatively small area, covering c. 10 km /day. They zig-zag short distances from bush to bush, digging on average 10-2 holes/km. Males engage in long-distance foraging, covering c. 27 km /day; only c. 1-3 holes/km are dug. Mean straightline distance between dens from one day to the next is c¢. 2: 5 km for short-distance foragers and c. 10- 1 km for long-distance foragers. Males and females differ significantly in their rate of travel (3-8 km /h and 2-7 km /h, respectively), straight line (6- 2 km and 2.4 km) and actual distance (13- 8 km and 7- 7 km) moved during an active period, but do not differ in the percentage of their home range area traversed in a single day (3%). Honey Badgers are mostly solitary, but pairs may be seen and aggregations may occur at feeding sites. Occasionally, after foraging in a particular area for most of the night, a male may suddenly move off to a location less than 9 km away, where it may meet up with other adults. On one occasion in Zimbabwe, six animals met up; they showed no aggression but continuously uttered a wide range of grunts, hisses, squeaks, and whines while rolling in the sand, sniffing each other, and scent marking. Such gatherings may last more than 18 min, and the Honey Badgers may retreat to the same den during the day. Radio-telemetry in the southern Kalahari revealed that the mean home range size of adult males (541 km?) wassignificantly larger than the mean home range size of adult females (126 km?). While mean home range overlap in females was moderate (13%) and home range centres were regularly spaced, females did not appearto actively defend a territory and no direct interactions between females were observed. Scent marking appears to mediate spatial-temporal separation and females show a loosely territorial spacing pattern. In contrast, the home ranges of males encompassed the overlapping home ranges of up to 13 females. Young males tended to have smaller home ranges (151 km?*) than adult males and showed a spacing pattern more similar to adult females than adult males.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs throughout the year and there appears to be no distinct breeding season. The gestation period is 50-70 days. Litter size is commonly one to two. Only the motherraises the young. The young are born blind and helpless inside a burrow. At two days of age, one captive Honey Badger weighed c. 0-23 kg and was hairless except for a few hairs on the face; the head and body length was 19- 7 cm, and the tail was 3-8 cm. It uttered squeaks and low guttural sounds during the first weeks, usually at feeding time; vocalization changed to deep, drawn-out, ominous growls at ten weeks. Within three months, the young have a fully developed adult pelage. The claws are fully formed on each foot at four weeks of age. The eyes open after 33 days and teeth begin erupting at 36 days and are fully developed at around three months. Adult size is reached after six months. Attempts at walking progress from a swimming motion (using all four legs) at age two to three weeks,to a forward dragging movement by the front legs at age five weeks, to a trot, similar to that of an adult, at eight weeks. Climbing starts at ten weeks. The young reach independence after 12-16 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Honey Badgers do not occur at high densities and are considered uncommon throughout their range. Persecution by beekeepers and livestock farmers is probably the greatest threat to this species.</p> <p>Bibliography. Begg, C. et al. (2005a, 2005b), Begg, K. (1995), Dean et al. (1990), Kruuk &amp; Mills (1983), Smithers &amp; Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Vanderhaar &amp; Hwang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA52FFBCCFED3B6CF6BCFEF0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487.text	038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Arctonyx collaris Cuvier 1825	<div><p>3.</p> <p>Hog Badger</p> <p>Arctonyx collaris</p> <p>French: Balisaur / German: Schweinsdachs / Spanish: Tejon porcino</p> <p>Taxonomy. Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825,</p> <p>Indonesia.</p> <p>Arctonyx was regarded as monotypic until late 2008, when this volume was in proof. Based on a review of the most available specimens in world museums, three distinctive species are now recognized within this genus. A. albogularis (Blyth, 1853) is a shaggy-coated, medium-sized badger widely distributed in temperate Asia, from Tibet and the Himalayan region to eastern and southern China. A. collaris (Cuvier, 1825), is an extremely large, shorter-haired badger, distributed throughout South-east Asia, from eastern India to Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The disjunctly distributed species A. hoevenii (Hubrecht, 1891) is the smallest and darkest member of the genus and is endemic to the Barisan mountain chain of Sumatra.</p> <p>Distribution. C, E &amp; S China and E Mongolia to Sub-Himalayan zone in Bhutan and NE India; also, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Sumatra.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 55-70 cm,tail 12-17 cm; weight 7-14 kg. The Hog Badger is stocky and sparsely furred, with a flat head, a long nose that extends to form a small “trunk”, conspicuous ears, small eyes, and long claws. The elongated snout is hairless and resembles the nose of a pig: hence the name Hog Badger. The pelage is yellowish or grayish with black and white hairs mixed throughout. There are alternating black and white stripes on the top of the head; the white stripes meet behind the ears and merge with the pale throat. The tail is short and sparsely covered with white hairs. The claws are well-developed on the forefeet and are pale in color. The skull is narrow and high with a long rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M1/2=36.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests, grasslands and plantations adjacent to forests, at elevations up to 3500 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes earthworms, insects, small mammals, snails, reptiles, tubers, and roots. In China, Hog Badgers were found to eat more mammals and gastropods than other sympatric small carnivore species. They use their hoglike nose to root through the forest floor.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal. Activity peaks occur between 03:00 h and 05:00 h and between 19:00 h and 21:00 h. Hog Badgers spend the day resting in underground burrows or in rock crevices; they can dig their own burrows. They undergo a period of inactivity during winter months and in central China, they may hibernate from November to February or March.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Solitary and terrestrial.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from May to September, depending on the locality. Births typically occur the following February or March. The long delay between mating and parturition suggests that this species undergoes delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus. Litter size is three to five. The young are weaned after four months and become independent soon after.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCN Red List. The Hog Badger is thought to be common throughoutits range. However, hunting by dogsis a threat to this species and it is also susceptible to snaring. Hog Badgers are hunted and farmed for food in China. They are also eaten in India, and hunted in Vietnam and some areas of Laos.</p> <p>Bibliography. Francis (2008), Helgen, Lim &amp; Helgen (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Parker (1979), Pocock (1941a), Wang &amp; Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA53FFBCCFA73EC1F7B6F487	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1.text	038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Meles anakuma Temminck 1844	<div><p>4.</p> <p>Japanese Badger</p> <p>Meles anakuma</p> <p>French: Blaireau du Japon / German: Japanischer Dachs / Spanish: Tejon japonés</p> <p>Taxonomy. Meles anakuma Temminck, 1844.</p> <p>Japan.</p> <p>Some authors consider M. anakuma as a subspecies of the Asian Badger. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Japan (Honshu, Kyushu &amp; Shikoku Is).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 50-80 cm,tail 14-20 cm; weight 6-17 kg. The Japanese Badger has a stocky body, short legs, grayish pelage, and contrasting black and white stripes on the head and upper neck. The foreclaws are well-developed for digging; the hindclaws are much smaller.</p> <p>Habitat. Japanese Badgers are found in fields and forests, often in close proximity to humans in suburban habitats.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. In Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, scat analysis revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms (Megaseolocidae) occur at high frequency in the diet, with berries (Rubus sp.), beetles, and persimmon (Dymopyrus kaki) also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food is eaten in early spring when earthworm availability is low, and in the autumn, Japanese Badgers switch from eating worms when Persimmon is abundant.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal, although sometimes active in the daytime. Breeding females, in particular, often forage during the day and in the spring. Between July and October, Japanese Badgers usually emerge from their setts around sunset and return around sunrise. After November, the time between emergence and return becomes shorter. From January to February, most activity ceases, and Japanese Badgers stay in their setts most of the time. The total hibernation period varies from 42-80 days, during which the body temperature is reduced. Den/resting sites are in underground burrows called setts or in couches. In Japan, the resting sites in each badger’s home range were found to be within 630 m of each other. Setts were sited within the core areas of home ranges and were mostly on a sub-ridge. Couches were mainly in deciduousforest, and along the forest edge, and were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Japanese Badgers form family groups consisting of a mother and her offspring. Mature adult males seldom visit the family except in early spring, and they are found to have large home ranges that encompass the home ranges of two to three adult females. The home ranges of each sex do not overlap, suggesting intra-sexual territoriality. Japanese Badgers use an average of 13-5 setts in a year; adult males and females seldom stay in the samesett together. Male offspring share a sett with their mother for up to 26 months, whereas female offspring remain with the mother for only 14 months. The average time male offspring spend with their mothers decreases when young are between 15 and 19 months old. In Hinode, Tokyo, the mean home range size of males (40 ha) was found to be larger than that of females (11 ha).</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from April to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until February. Litter size varies from one to three. Male offspring continue growing for 24 months, but females reach adult size in a year. Sexual maturity is reached after two years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Field studies are needed are learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Japanese Badger.</p> <p>Bibliography. Abramov &amp; Puzachenko (2006), Kaneko (2001, 2005), Kaneko et al. (2006), Sato et al. (2003), Tanaka (2005, 2006), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA53FFBBCFAE3020FDBEF7B1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.text	038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Meles leucurus (Hodgson 1847) Brisson 1762	<div><p>5.</p> <p>Asian Badger</p> <p>Meles leucurus</p> <p>French: Blaireau d'Asie / German: Asiatischer Dachs / Spanish: Tejon asiatico</p> <p>Taxonomy. Taxidea leucurus Hodgson, 1847,</p> <p>China.</p> <p>The Asian Badger has been considered conspecific with the European Badger by some authors, but is listed here as a distinct species. Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M..l. leucurus Hodgson, 1847 — C, E &amp; S China..</p> <p>M. l. amurensis Schrenck, 1859 — NE China (Manchuria), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North and South Korea, and Russia (E of Volga River).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 49.5-70 cm, tail 13-20.5 cm; weight 3.5-9 kg. The Asian Badger bears a great resemblance to the European Badger. The bodyis stocky, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish-silver throughout. The face is white with two narrow blackish-brown stripes running over the eye and above the ear. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. The soles ofthe feet are naked. The front claws are well-developed for digging, whereas the hindclaws are much smaller. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is narrow with an elongated rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests and fields, and in close proximity to humans.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly invertebrates (earthworms and insects), small mammals, and plant material.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Asian Badgers are gregarious and live in communalsetts with multiple tunnels and den entrances.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Although the European Badger has been well studied in Europe, little is known specifically about the Asian Badger, although it is presumed that there are few differences in basic natural history between these two species. Field studies are needed to learn more about the natural history, ecology, and conservation status of the Asian Badger. This speciesis legally hunted in China, Russia, and Mongolia.</p> <p>Bibliography. Abramov &amp; Puzachenko (2006), Neal &amp; Cheeseman (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA54FFBBCAEF347EF63DFE7B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6.text	038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Meles meles Brisson 1762	<div><p>6.</p> <p>European Badger</p> <p>Meles meles</p> <p>French: Blaireau d'Europe / German: Européischer Dachs / Spanish: Tején europeo</p> <p>Other common names: Eurasian Badger</p> <p>Taxonomy. Ursus meles Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>Up to twenty-three subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Europe, E up to Volga River, Russia; also Caucasus and Middle East from Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, to N Afghanistan.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 56-90 cm, tail 11.5-20.2 cm; weight 10-16 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Badger has a stocky body, with short legs and a short tail. The coarse and dense pelage is grayish, with black underparts and limbs. On each side of the face is a dark stripe that extends from the nose to the ear and encloses the eye; white stripes border the dark stripe. The tip of the ears is white. The nose is long with a large rhinarium. All the feet have strong claws. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Thefirst premolars are vestigial and sometimes absent.</p> <p>Habitat. European Badgers are mainly found in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodland, hedges, scrub, riverine habitat, agricultural land, grassland, steppes, and semi-deserts. They prefer densely forested areas adjacent to open fields, up to 1700 m. Occasionally, they are found in suburban areas. In central Spain, European Badgers prefer mid-elevation mountain areas, where both dehesas (open woods with pastures) and pine forests prevail; lower elevation areas are avoided. They are associated with watercourses and prefer trees and rock covered areas. In the Swiss Jura Mountains, European Badgers use forests and wooded pastures in the winter and spring and grain fields in the summer and autumn.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and other invertebrates (such as insects and molluscs), small mammals (mice, rabbits, rats, voles, shrews, moles, hedgehogs), birds, reptiles, amphibians, carrion, nuts, acorns, berries, fruits, tubers, and mushrooms. In forests, European Badgers rely predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) play equally important roles (34% each). In England, the main foods are earthworms, insects, fruit, and wheat; grass is also ingested in substantial quantities. Earthworms are the most frequent food items, but wheat is almost as important in terms of percentage volume. In Poland, earthworms constitute 82-89% of the biomass consumed in spring. In summer and autumn, the proportion declines to 56% in pristine forest, and to 24% in a mosaic of forests, fields, and orchards. Supplementary food items during this time are amphibians (in forests) and garden fruits (in a rural landscape). In Denmark, earthworms, small mammals, cereals, and arthropods dominate the diet. In central Switzerland, the diet comprises 55% faunal material and 45% vegetal material. Earthworms have the highest frequency of occurrence. Voles, insects, and maize are eaten during most of the year, but never in large volumes, while wasps, cherries, plums, and oats are eaten seasonally and in large volumes. In Italy, earthworms and maize are the staple foods and together account for 57% of the mean estimated volume. Earthworm consumption varies seasonally, with a marked decrease in summer; this decline is compensated by a significant increase in fruits eaten. Maize is consumed all year round with no significant seasonal variation (from 21% in summer to 44-6% in winter). Prey items include amphibians (9%) and mammals (7-2%, primarily rodents and lagomorphs). In a dry Mediterranean coastal habitat in central Italy, European Badgers feed primarily on fruits and insects (90% ofthe total amount of food eaten each year). Other less important food items include myriapods, molluscs, birds, and mammals; earthworms do not play an important role in the diet in any period ofthe year.</p> <p>Activity patterns. European Badgers show crepuscular or nocturnal activity, generally starting after sunset and ending before sunrise, and are active on average for about eight hours per day. The highestlevel of activity is between 20:00 h and 03:00 h. During the day, they mainly rest in elaborate, communal burrow systems (setts) with numerous entrances, passages, and chambers, but other types of rest sites may be used. Setts may cover an area of 0-25 ha; they are used year after year and increase in complexity over time, and may eventually cover several hectares. There are two types of burrows: “main” setts (with many entrances) and small “outliers” (with usually only one entrance). Nests may be located 10 m from an entrance, 2-3 m below the surface, and have a diameter of 1- 5 m. Within a burrow system, European Badgers may utilize one nest for several months and then move to another part of the burrow. The living quarters are kept quite clean. Bedding material (dry grass, bracken, moss, or leaves) is dragged backwards into the den. Around setts, there are several dung pits, sunning grounds, and play areas. Well-defined paths, up to 2-3 km, extend from the sett to foraging areas. In south-western Spain,setts are located almost everywhere, but European Badgers prefer easily dug, well-drained soils, with good vegetation cover within foraging habitats. They select sites with high surrounding shrub density, large shrubs covering the burrow, and close to the centre of the territory. During bouts of cold weather or deep snow, European Badgers may sleep in the sett for days or weeks. In northern Europe, this winter sleep may last several months. During this period, there is a substantial drop in body temperature and the badger lives off fat reserves accumulated in the summer and autumn. In south-west Portugal, main setts are the most frequently used restsites (62:3%); however, an average of 14 other resting sites are used in each territory. Females use more than twice as many occasional resting sites as do males. Generally burrows (predominantly main setts) are most frequently used during winter and autumn, whilst non-burrow shelters are preferred during spring and summer, when the weather is hot, dry and not windy. In northern Italy, ten setts (mean number of entrances = 2-1) were detected in the study area. Each radio-collared badger used 2-3 setts, occupying one sett from one to eight months before moving to another one. All badgers shared (although in different periods) one main sett located in the inner part of their ranges.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mean daily movement ranges from 1-2 km in England to 7 km in Poland. Average speed of movement varies from 0-3 km /h in Spain to 1- 1 km /h in Switzerland. European Badgers in Britain form clans of mutli-male and multi-female groups, of up to 23 animals (average = six). Elsewhere in their range they commonly live alone, or in pairs with either intra- or inter-sexual territories. Clans are led by a dominant male and female, and usually have more females than males. Individuals move around alone within a clan range. These ranges are marked using latrine sites and secretions from the sub-caudal glands; sometimes fights may occur at territorial boundaries. In England, many clans have ranges of 50- 150 ha, with little overlap; the minimum distance between the main burrows of clans is 300 m. In the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland, the daily home range was 2- 1 km? (19% oftheir total home rangesize). The size ofterritories varied from 8-4 to 25- 5 km? (mean 12- 8 km?). The mean individual home range was 9- 3 km? and varied seasonally and among animals of different age and sex classes (from 4-24- 4 km?). Home ranges of adult badgers were significantly larger than those of subadults. European Badgers occupied larger home ranges in summer, when earthworm availability was low. They moved with an average speed of 0-9 km /hour (maximum 7- 1 km /hour). Adults of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. In Denmark, home range size varied between 2-96 km? and 3-94 km?; individuals from a social group had similar home ranges (95% overlap), whereas home ranges of individuals from neighboring social groups had little overlap (1-2%). In the Swiss Jura Mountains, radio-collared European Badgers travelled up to 9460 m each night; they avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. The average home range size was 320 ha, but the ranging behavior varied between seasons. Den-watching, night-lighting, and radio-tracking data suggested that European Badgerslive in pairs in this wet and cold region. In an area of agricultural lowland in northern Italy, radiotracked animals showed considerable home range overlap, with an overall mean size of 3-83 km?. Population density estimates range from 0-4 to 1-5 individuals per 100 ha.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating can occur year-round, but typically occurs in late winter to midsummer. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus can either be immediate or delayed for about ten months; the time of implantation seems to be controlled by light and temperature conditions. Embryonic developmentlasts six to eight weeks. The total gestation may thus be up to 9-12 months. Births occur mainly from February to March.Litter size is usually three or four, but can be as many as six. The young weigh 75 g at birth; their eyes open after one month. They nurse for 2:5 months and usually separate from the mother in the autumn. Both sexes reach sexual maturity after one year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. European Badgers are generally considered common and of no special conservation concern, although declines in numbers have occurred in some areas. They sometimes damage property or consume crops, and thus are often regarded as pests and persecuted. The hair is used to make various kinds of brushes, and badger skin has been used to make rugs. European Badgers are commonly killed on roads; as many as 50,000 may be killed each year in Great Britain. They are vectors of bovine tuberculosis, which has led to controversial efforts to reduce European Badger numbers in parts of Britain.</p> <p>Bibliography. Balestrieri et al. (2004), Elmeros et al. (2005), Fischer &amp; Weber (2003), Goszczynski et al. (2000), Kowalczyk, Jedrzejewska &amp; Zalewski (2003), Kowalczyk, Zalewski &amp; Jedrzejewska (2004, 2006), Kowalczyk, Zalewski, Jedrzejewska &amp; Jedrzejewski (2003), Kruuk &amp; Parish (1987), Long &amp; Killingley (1983), Loureiro et al. (2007), Madsen et al. (2002), Marassi &amp; Biancardi (2002), Melis et al. (2002), Neal &amp; Cheeseman (1996), Page et al. (1994), Palphramand et al. (2007), Pigozzi (1991), Remonti et al. (2006), Revilla &amp; Palomares (2002), Revilla et al. (2001), Rodriguez et al. (1996), Roper (1994), Roper &amp; Lups (1995), Roperet al. (2001), Rosalino et al. (2002), San et al. (2007), Shepherdson et al. (1990), Virgos &amp; Casanovas (1999), Weber &amp; Ferrari (2005), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA54FFBACFEF3E38F9CBF9C6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.text	038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Eira barbara (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>7.</p> <p>Tayra</p> <p>Eira barbara</p> <p>French: Tayra / German: Tayra / Spanish: Taira</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela barbara Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>“ Pernambuco ”, Brazil.</p> <p>Seven subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>E. b. barbara Linnaeus, 1758 — Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.</p> <p>E. b. inserta J. A. Allen, 1908 — El Salvador and Honduras to Costa Rica.</p> <p>E. b. madeirensis Lonnberg, 1913 — W Brazll, E Ecuador, and NE Peru.</p> <p>E. b. peruana Tschudi, 1844 — Amazonian Bolivia and SE Peru.</p> <p>E. b. poliocephala Traill, 1821 — the Guianas, E Venezuela, and lower Amazon Basin.</p> <p>E. b. senex Thomas, 1900 — Mexico to Guatemala.</p> <p>E. b. sinuensis Humboldt, 1812 — Panama to Colombia, W Ecuador, W Venezuela, and Trinidad.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 55.9-71.2 cm, tail 36-5—- 46 cm; weight 2.7-7 kg, adult males are 30% larger than females. The Tayra is large and slender, with elongated limbs and a long brushy tail. The pelage is dark, but the head and neck are grayish or grizzled tan. In Guyana, a yellow morph also occurs. The feet have naked soles and strong claws. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 3/3-4, M 1/1-2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are missing, although the upper first premolar is sometimes retained.</p> <p>Habitat. Tayras are found in tropical and subtropical forests, including secondary rainforests, gallery forests, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. They sometimes occur in gardens, plantations, and in agricultural fields. Tayras may hunt in grasslands, although much of their time is spent in forested areas. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, Tayras are usually found along gallery forests; at night, they may cross extensive grasslands, presumably moving from one forest to another. In Veracruz, Mexico, Tayras generally are restricted to forested habitats. They are found in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil, in deciduous and scrub forest of the Pantanal in Paraguay and Bolivia, and in gallery and scrub forest and tall grass savannas in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. In Belize, no significant habitat preference was found for the Tayra.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes fruits, small vertebrates, insects, and carrion. In Venezuela, three species of vertebrate (Echimys semivillous, Rhipidomys sp., and Iguana iguana) and four species of fruit (Genipa americana, Zanthozylum culantrillo, Guazuma tomentosa, and Psychotria anceps) were recorded from 18 scats; both FE. semivillous and G. americana were found in 50% of the scats. In Belize, four species of small mammals were found in 31 scats: Didelphis marsupialis (9-6%), Oryzomys palustris (22-5%), Sigmodon hispidus (32:3%), and Rattus rattus (29-0%). In addition, 19-4% small birds, 58-0% arthropods, and 67-7% fruit were found. The primary fruit eaten was Calocarpum mammosum. Additional fruits consumed included Cecropia mexicana, Astrocaryum standleyanum, and Spondias mombin. Prey and other foods are detected primarily by smell, as its eyesight is relatively poor. Prey are captured after persistent chases; the Tayra does not stalk or ambush prey.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon. On occasion, some nocturnal activity may occur, especially near human habitations. Rest sites are in hollow trees or underground burrows.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Tayras spend a large proportion of their time foraging or resting in trees. They are normally solitary, but adult pairs and small groups, consisting of a female with her young, are sometimes seen. In the Ilanos of Venezuela, a female with two young maintained a home range of 2: 25 km * around a den until the pups were about three months old, after which her range expanded to almost 9 km *. Upon expansion of her home range and weaning of the young, the female used new dens daily that were an average of 867 m apart. In Belize, Tayras traveled an average of 6-89 km per day. A female had a home range of 16-03 km* over a 13-month period, one male had a home range of 24-44 km ” over a 10-month period, and another male had a home range of only 2-11 km? over a 3-month period; the short duration of radio-tracking for the last animal may have accounted for the small size of the observed home range. The home ranges of all three animals overlapped greatly. In south-eastern Brazil, a female had a home range of 5- 3 km?; she did not show a preference for any particular habitat type within her home range, but her use of secondary forest and grassland agreed with previous studies.</p> <p>Breeding. In captivity, breeding activity of adult Tayras occurs during the day. However, on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, two males and one female may have engaged in nocturnal sexual behavior. Males appear ready to mate year round and can reproduce by 18 months of age. Female Tayras have their first estrus at about 22 months of age; the estrous cycle is c. 52 days in young females and c. 94 days in older females. Females enter estrus several times each year for periods of 3-20 days. Gestation lasts 63-67 days. Delayed implantation does not occur. Tayras give birth to one to three young, but two are most common. In the wild, males do not remain with females, who raise the young alone. The young are born blind, covered in fur, and weigh about 100 g. The ears open at 27-34 days and the eyes open at 35-47 days. Deciduous teeth begin emerging at day 36 and are completely erupted by day 99. Permanent teeth appear at day 115 and are completely emerged by day 224. The young consume solid food by day 70 and are weaned by day 100. Five stages of development have been defined. First is the infant stage, days 1-50, during which the young suckle and do not leave the den. During days 50-75, the fledgling stage, the young leave the den for short periods, and solid food is provided by the mother, in addition to milk. The weaning stage, days 75-100, includes exploratory excursions, with independent feeding on fruits and insects. During the transition stage, days 100-200, the birth den is abandoned, the young are weaned, and they begin to hunt with their mother and kill prey on their own. During dispersal, days 200-300, family bonds break down and the young go their separate ways. The young reach adult size at six months. When outside the den, the young and mother use a clicking call to maintain contact if they are not within sight of one another. Mothers are protective of their young and will carry them by the middle of the body when a threatis perceived. This protective behavior persists as the young grow and mothers may also carry or drag them back to the den by their necks or ears. Prey-catching ability develops slowly and is learned. When only three months old, the young will follow and bite rodents and small birds on the rump or limbs. Through experience, bite placement is improved, resulting in killing bites to the base of the skull. The mother will bring wounded prey to her young and release it for them to catch and kill.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Tayra is considered common throughout most ofits range. However, the range of E. b. senex has been greatly reduced in Mexico because of the destruction of tropical forests and the spread of agriculture. Remaining populations are small and threatened by habitat loss and hunting. The Tayra is a popular species for zoo exhibits and is frequently kept In captivity.</p> <p>Bibliography. Galef et al. (1976), Michalski et al. (2006), Poglayen-Neuwall (1975, 1978), Presley (2000), Ramirez-Pulido et al. (2005), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA58FFB7CAF93DF3F8D1F99A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.text	038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gulo gulo (Linnaeus 1758) Pallas 1780	<div><p>8.</p> <p>Wolverine</p> <p>Gulo gulo</p> <p>French: Carcajou / German: Vielfrafls / Spanish: Gloton</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela gulo Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Lapland.</p> <p>Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>G. g. gulo Linnaeus, 1758 — NE &amp; NW China, Mongolia, Russia, and Scandinavia.</p> <p>G. g. luscus Linnaeus, 1758 — Canada and W USA (Alaska, California, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington &amp; Wyoming).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 65-105 cm, tail 21-26 cm; weight 11-18 kg (males), 6-12 kg (females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Wolverine is heavily built and stocky, and is the largest terrestrial member of the Mustelidae. The pelage is long and varies in color from almost blond to dark brown, with two distinctive yellowish stripes that run from the top of the neck to the rump. White patches on the throat, belly or limbs are common. The head is large, with a broad forehead, broad nose, and rounded ears. The limbs are relatively short and the tail is bushy. The feet are large, with well-developed claws. The skull is exceptionally robust and broad, with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are big and strong; the carnassials are very large.</p> <p>Habitat. Wolverines are found in mature conifer forests in the taiga and in the treeless tundra. They are inhabitants of remote northern areas where there are few humans. Wolverines make greater use of forested areas during winter, and greater use of tundra during summer. Altitudinal movements may also occur seasonally, with higher elevations being occupied during the summer and lower altitudes during the winter, probably because of snow accumulation and prey abundance. In central Idaho, USA, radiotracked Wolverines used higher elevations in summer versus winter, and they shifted use of cover types from whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in summer to lower elevation Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) communities in winter. Wolverines also preferred northerly aspects, but avoided roads and ungulate winter range. In British Columbia, Canada, radio-telemetry revealed that Wolverines negatively responded to human disturbance within occupied habitat; males tended to avoid helicopter skiing areas. Habitat associations of females were more complex, but in the summer they avoided roads and recently logged areas. In the Columbia Mountains, where winter recreation is widespread, females prefer alpine and avalanche environments where Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) and Columbia Ground Squirrel prey are found in the summer. During the winter, females tend to avoid areas with helicopter and backcountry skiing, and prefer areas where Moose (Alces alces) can be found.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes the carcasses of large ungulates, such as Moose and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In many areas, Wolverines are dependent on the ability of larger predators, especially Gray Wolves, to provide kills. In coastal areas, they also feed on the carcasses of whales and seals that wash ashore. Wolverines also prey opportunistically on deer, sheep, small mammals (rodents such as Marmota and Myodes, lagomorphs, and ground squirrels), birds, and eggs. Berries, nuts and fungus are occasionally eaten. Within two study areas in British Columbia, scat analysis revealed a diet that varied regionally and seasonally: Moose, Reindeer, and Hoary Marmots were abundant and common prey items within both study areas. Mountain Goats (Oreamnos americanus) and North American Porcupine (Erithizon dorsata) were more frequent prey items in the Columbia Mountains, while Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) and American Beaver (Castor canadensis) were more frequent prey items in the Omineca Mountains. Reindeer, Hoary Marmots, and North American Porcupines were found in significantly higher frequencies in the diet of reproductive females. Predation on ungulates (such as Reindeer)is facilitated when there is deep snow. Wolverines kill larger prey by a bite at the neck or throat. Small rodents may be chased, pounced upon, or dug out of the ground. Excess food is cached for later use and is covered with earth or snow, or sometimes wedged in the forks of trees. In Alberta and British Columbia, cache sites were in stands of black spruce (Picea mariana) or mixed-wood of high complexity, dominated by conifers, and in which the trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) component consisted of mostly dead or dying trees. These sites offered relatively good visibility of the surrounding area; caches were never located in the very dense homogenous spruce stands. Cache sites were classified as “simple caches”, composed of a single feeding site and/or excavation, and “cache complexes”, involving one or more feeding “stations”, latrines, resting sites, and climbing trees that may have been used as avenues of escape from competitors or predators. The better used cache complexes were accessed by numerous well-used trails made by the Wolverines themselves. Caches contained the remains of Moose that were believed to have been killed by Wolves.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, but occasionally active during the day. Rest sites may be a rough bed of grass or leaves in a cave or rock crevice, in a burrow made by another animal, or under a fallen tree. In Alberta and British Columbia, resting sites were located on top of the snow in relatively open locations that offered good visibility of the surroundings. Wolverines do not appear to be hindered by deep snow and are active year round.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Wolverines are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also strong swimmers and agile tree climbers. Their scavenging habits dictate covering long distances. Daily movements in excess of 30 km are common; males travel more widely than females. They are capable of reaching speeds of 45 km /h. In north-western Alaska, the home ranges of males were 488-917 km * and 53-232 km? for females. In south-central Alaska, home ranges averaged 535 km ” for males and 105 km? for females. In Yukon, home ranges were 209-269 km * for males and 76-269 km? for females. The home range of each male overlaps three or four females. However, in Montana, there was extensive overlap between the ranges of both the same and opposite sexes, and no territorial defense was observed. Population densities vary from one animal per 50 km? in Siberia to one per 500 km * in Scandinavia. North American densities vary from one per 65 km? to one per 200 km.</p> <p>Breeding. Wolverines exhibit a polygamous mating system, as some males produce offspring with more than one female in a single year. Females often reproduce with the same male in subsequent breeding years, but sometimes change their partner, possibly as a consequence of a change in the territory-holding male in the area. Females are monoestrous and apparently give birth about every two years. Mating occurs from May to August. Ovulation is induced; implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed until the following November to March. Births occur from January to April, after a total gestation period of 215-270 days. Maternal dens are located in alpine, subalpine, taiga, or tundra habitat; reports of dens in low elevation, densely forested habitats are rare. Dens in Alaska are usually long, complex snow tunnels with no associated trees or boulders. In Idaho, dens are associated with fallen trees or boulders. In both areas, all dens are covered with at least 1 m of snow. Litter size is one to five; usually two to four. The young weigh about 84 g at birth and are born fully furred, but with their eyes closed. Weaning occurs after seven to eight weeks, and adultsize is reached by November, when the young separate from the mother. Females raise the young alone. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCN Red Listt. Wolverines are harvested for their pelt; although their fur is not used widely in commerce it is valued for parkas. Fur trapping has contributed to a decline in numbers and distribution of the Wolverine. Wolverines are also intensely hunted because they are considered a nuisance animal: they follow traplines and devour trapped furbearers, they break into cabins and food caches, they allegedly prey on domestic reindeer, and they attack sheep. Protection and recovery measures are needed to restore populations acrossits previously known range.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aubry et al. (2007), Banci &amp; Harestad (1988), Copeland &amp; Whitman (2003), Copeland et al. (2007), Hedmark et al. (2007), Hornocker &amp; Hash (1981), Krebs et al. (2007), Krott (1960), Landa, Linden &amp; Kojola (2000), Landa, Strand, Linnell &amp; Skogland (1998), Landa, Strand, Swenson &amp; Skogland (1997), Lofroth et al. (2007), Magoun &amp; Copeland (1998), Mead et al. (1991), Pasitschniak-Arts &amp; Lariviere (1995), Stroganov (1969), Whitman et al. (1986), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wright &amp; Ernst (2004a, 2004b).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA58FFB6CFF73B13FC1CF217	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.text	038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes americana (Turton 1806) Pinel 1792	<div><p>9.</p> <p>American Marten</p> <p>Martes americana</p> <p>French: Martre d’Amérique / German: Fichtenmarder / Spanish: Marta norteamericana</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela americanus Turton, 1806,</p> <p>North America.</p> <p>The number of subspecies is debated and here we recognize eight.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. a. americana Turton, 1806 — E Canada (Ontario &amp; Quebec) anf NE USA.</p> <p>M. a. abietinoides Gray, 1865 — SW Canada (C British Columbia &amp; SW Alberta) and NW USA (N Montana &amp; Idaho).</p> <p>M. a. actuosa Osgood, 1900 — Alaska and NW Canada (N Alberta, N British Catan, Northwest Territories &amp; Yukon).</p> <p>M. a. atrata Bangs, 1897 — NE Canada (Newfoundland and Labrador).</p> <p>M. a. caurina Merriam, 1890 — W Canada (W British Columbia) and USA (S Alaska &amp; W Washington).</p> <p>M. a. humboldtensis Grinnell &amp; Dixon, 1926 — SW USA (NW California).</p> <p>M. a. kenaiensis Elliot, 1903 — Alaska (Kenai Peninsula).</p> <p>M. a. nesophila Osgood, 1901 — SW Alaska and W Canada (islands off British Columbia, and perhaps along nearby mainland).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36-45 cm (males), 32-40 cm (females), tail 20-23 cm (males), 18-20 cm (females); weight 470-1250 g (males), 280-850 g (females), adult males are about 65% heavier than females. The American Marten has a long, slender body, with short limbs, bushy tail, and large rounded ears. The pelage ranges from light beige to dark brown, and often shows shades of orange. Many individuals have yellow to bright orange throat and upper chest patches. The head is pale gray and the legs and tail are almost black. The feet are fully furred, each digit has a strong claw. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, with elongated auditory bullae. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4,M 1/2 = 38.</p> <p>Habitat. American Martens are found predominantly in mature conifer or coniferdominated mixed forests. Preferred habitats are mature old-growth spruce-fir communities, with greater than 30% canopy cover, a well-established understory of fallen logs and stumps, and lush shrub and forb vegetation. They avoid large open spaces such as clearcuttings, but may use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges, and rocky alpine areas above the timberline. In the coastal forests of California, American Martens select the largest available patches of old-growth, old-growth and late-mature, or serpentine habitat; dense, spatially extensive shrub cover is a key habitat element. In Alberta, during the winter, American Martens use young forests, and mature/old coniferous and deciduous stands, according to their availability. In the Selkirk and Purcell Mountains of south-west Canada, American Martens were detected in all habitats sampled including recently logged areas, regenerating stands, dry Douglas-fir (Pseudosuga menziesii) forest and subalpine parkland. They selected for greater crown closure and older stands at the finer resolution; no selection for forest structure was detected at the larger resolution except that American Martens selected against increased overstory heterogeneity. They preferred coniferous stands over deciduous-dominated stands and were more abundant in wetter than in dryer areas. In a clearcut boreal landscape in western Quebec, in which black spruce (Picea mariana) is the predominant forest type, American Martens avoid open regenerating stands composed mostly of recent clearcuts with sparse regeneration. They do not select coniferous stands, even those that are mature or overmature, but prefer deciduous and mixed stands, a large proportion of which has a dense coniferous shrub layer. Winter home ranges usually contain less than 30-35% open or closed regenerating stands and more than 40-50% uncut forest. In south-eastern Labrador, American Martens avoid areas with low productivity and low canopy cover (&lt;20%), but show no selection for tree species composition or cover among more productive forests. In eastern Newfoundland, mature coniferous forest is the dominant cover type in most American Marten home ranges and is the only forest type used proportionately more than its availability by resident individuals. Otherforest types used in proportion to their availability include coniferous scrub and insect-defoliated stands; open areas and sites recently disturbed by fire are avoided at this scale. In northern Maine, in an area where trapping and timber harvesting had been excluded for more than 35 years, American Martens were found to use nearly all the available habitat, although during the summer, they preferred stands that had substantial mortality caused by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). Mature, well-stocked coniferous forest was the least abundant forest type in the home ranges of both sexes, in both seasons, whereas mature, well-stocked deciduous forest was the most abundant.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals, including voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels (7amiasciurus and Glaucomys sp.), and lagomorphs, especially the Snowshoe Hare. Other food items include birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, earthworms), fruits, and berries. In Newfoundland, Meadow Voles were the most prevalent food item found in scats (80% in summer and 47-5% in winter); Snowshoe Hares occurred in 28% of winter samples, and 16% other food types were found in scats during each season. In the mixed-conifer forests of southern Sierra Nevada, where the American Marten and Fisher are sympatric, the diet of Fishers appeared to include more remains of birds, lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens. However, the dietary overlap between these two species was high. The diets of both species were more diverse than previously reported in North America, perhaps due to the absence or rarity of large prey (Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey types in the southern Sierra Nevada. American Martens hunt and find food by constant searching, sometimes in trees, and often tunnel under snow during winter to search for microtines.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, but can be active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs ortrees, in rock crevices, or in burrows. Large logs, large snags, and large, live spruce and fir trees are important characteristics for den sites in the central Rocky Mountains. Squirrels provide important denning structures as well as prey for American Martens.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. American Martens are solitary and partly arboreal, but spend a considerable amount of time on the ground. They can also swim and dive well. The home ranges of males are 2-3 times larger than those of females: up to 45 km ” for males (overall average c. 9 km?) and up to 28 km? for females (overall average c. 3 km?). The degree of overlap of home ranges varies, but generally male home ranges overlap those of several females, and individuals are intolerant of conspecifics of the same sex. In Minnesota, the home ranges of three males were 10-5, 16-6 and 19- 9 km?, and 4- 3 km? for one female; there was considerable overlap between the ranges of two of the males. In Wisconsin, mean winter home range size was 3-29 km?, with the home ranges of males (mean = 4-25 km?) significantly larger than females (mean = 2-32 km?). In Newfoundland, home range estimates were 29-54 km? for males and 15-19 km?* for females. In Labrador, the mean home range for males was 45 km * and 27- 6 km ” for females. In a forest preserve that was closed to trapping, the proportion of males maintaining residency throughout the study period was found to be higher than that of females, indicating that the home ranges of females were more dynamic than the home ranges of males. Neither males nor females adjusted the size of their home ranges among seasons; however, males tended to shift location of their home ranges in response to increases in available space. Females either maintained a high degree of fidelity among seasons or completely abandoned previously established home ranges. Abandonment of existing home ranges by some females may have resulted from stresses associated with a high density in an untrapped population. Population densities vary from 0-5 to 1-7 per km?</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from July to August. Implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 190-250 days; embryonic development is about 28 days. Total gestation period is thus 220-275 days. The young are born in late March or April, usually in a hollow tree or arboreal cavity; the natal nest is lined with dry vegetation. In the Sierra Madre Range, Wyoming, natal and maternal dens included rock crevices (28%), snags (25%), Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) middens (19%), and logs (16%). Littersize is one to five, usually two to three. Neonates weigh c. 28 g, open their eyes after 39 days, are weaned after six weeks, and reach adult size after three months. Sexual maturity is attained at 15-24 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. American Martens are considered common in some parts of their range, and are legally harvested for the fur trade. However, by the early 20" century, excessive trapping had severely depleted the American Marten in many areas, particularly in Alaska, Canada, and western United States. Protective regulations subsequently allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas and reintroduction programs have been carried out in Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of north-eastern USA and south-eastern Canada.</p> <p>Current low numbers or absences in some areas seem attributable to forestry practices; this species is very sensitive to habitat destruction, and clear-cutting can completely eliminate American Martens from an area. The availability of hollow trees for use as resting sites and natal densis especially critical, and logging procedures that eliminate old stumps or older trees may be detrimental to American Marten populations.</p> <p>Bibliography. Buskirk (1984), Buskirk &amp; MacDonald (1984), Clark et al. (1987), Dumyahn &amp; Zollner (2007), Gosse &amp; Hearn (2005), Hagmeier (1961), Mowat (2006), Poole &amp; Graf (1996), Potvin et al. (2000), Powell et al. (2003), Proulx (2006), Raine (1983), Ruggiero et al. (1998), Simon et al. (1999), Slauson et al. (2007), Smith &amp; Schaefer (2002), Soutiere (1979), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA59FFB5CFDE3DB0FDD9F5B1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.text	038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes flavigula Pinel 1792	<div><p>10.</p> <p>Yellow-throated Marten</p> <p>Martes flavigula</p> <p>French: Martre a gorge jaune / German: Buntmarder / Spanish: Marta papigualda</p> <p>Taxonomy Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785,</p> <p>Nepal.</p> <p>Six subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. f. flavigula Boddaert, 1785 — Bangladesh, Bhutan, C, E &amp; S China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.</p> <p>M. f. borealis Radde, 1862 — NE China, North and South Korea, and Russia.</p> <p>M. f. chrysospila Swinhoe, 1866 — Taiwan.</p> <p>M. f. indochinensis Kloss, 1916 — Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.</p> <p>M. f. perunsularis Bonhote, 1901 — Borneo, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.</p> <p>M. f. robinsoni Pocock, 1936 — Java.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 45-65 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 1.3-3 kg. The Yellowthroated Marten has a long, slender body and a long, dark tail; the tail is 60-70% of head and body length. The ears are large and round. The pelage varies geographically and with season. The top of the head and neck,the tail, the lower limbs, and parts of the back are dark brown to black; the rest of the body is pale brown. There are bright orange-yellow markings from the chin to the chest. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is strong; the temporal ridges do not approach to form a sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. Males have larger canines than females.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests, including dry and hill evergreen, mixed and moist deciduous, and dry dipterocarp forest, at elevations of 200-3000 m. In Thailand, radio-collared Yellowthroated Martens generally used the different types of habitat in proportion to their availability; however, one male was observed to use open forest-grassland less than it was available.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal; activity peaks occur during the morning (06:00- 08:00 h) and late afternoon (16:00-18:00 h). Reduced activity periods are scattered during the night (20:00-04:00 h) and are greater during lunar nights than other nights. The highest average monthly activity is during October, whereas the lowest is during March. Wet season activity is significantly greater than dry season activity. Den/ rest sites are in holes, rocks crevices, or hollow trees.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small rodents, pikas, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, birds, eggs, fruit, honey, berries, and nectar. It has been reported that Yellowthroated Martens prey on musk deer (Moschus sp.) and the young of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), deer, and gorals.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Yellow-throated Martens climb trees with great agility, but often cometo the ground to hunt. They are seen in pairs or small family groups. In Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, five adult Yellow-throated Martens were radio-tracked for 4-16 months. The mean daily movement was 770 m for four males and 1349 m for one female. The cumulative home rangesizes for four males were 1-7, 3-5, 10-1 and 11- 8 km?, and 8- 8 km? for one female. Home ranges generally increased during the wet season; however, the range of one male increased marginally during the dry season. Mean range overlap was 34%.</p> <p>Breeding. Believed to breed in August, and give birth in April to litters of two to five young. Gestation is 220-290 days.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The subspecies M. f. robinsoni is classified as Endangered. Little is known about Yellow-throated Martens and further field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Francis (2008), Grassman, Tewes &amp; Silvy (2005), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Nandini &amp; Karthik (2007), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5AFFB5CAF03677F819F935	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31.text	038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes foina (Erxleben 1777) Pinel 1792	<div><p>11.</p> <p>Stone Marten</p> <p>Martes foina</p> <p>French: Fouine / German: Steinmarder / Spanish: Garduna</p> <p>Other common names: Beech Marten</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela foina Erxleben, 1777,</p> <p>Germany.</p> <p>Up to fifteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Mainland C &amp; S Europe, Caucasus, Middle East, C Asia to Mongolia, C &amp; SW China, and N Myanmar. Introduced to Ibiza I (Spain), but now extirpated, and to USA (Wisconsin).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 40-54 cm, tail 22-30 cm; weight 1.1-2.3 kg. The Stone Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage ranges from grayish brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white or pale yellow neck and throat patch, which often splits into two parts that extend to the anterior part of the legs. The tail and legs are darker than the back. The upperlip has a medial rhinarial groove. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has slightly convex outer edges (they are concave in the European Pine Marten.</p> <p>Habitat. Stone Martens are found in forests and open and rocky areas,at elevations up to 4000 m. They also occur in fragmented forests, hedgerows, and cultivated areas, and in close proximity to humans. They are generally found in more open environments than other marten species and appear to avoid conifer forests. In a fragmented agricultural landscape, Stone Martens were found to prefer areas with wood and scrub vegetation and watercourses with continuous vegetation along their verges; they tended to avoid arable land.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists of rodents, birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians,insects, fruits, and berries. In France, voles (Microtus sp.) make up to 30-55% of the total diet; there is strong seasonality, with microtines eaten more often in winter and spring. In the Swiss Jura, mammals are the main prey, representing 37-9% ofall food items; Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) were found in 90-4% of scats during peak vole numbers. In central Italy, fruit and berries are the staple diet, but mammals and birds are also important; the diet varies seasonally in relation to resource availability, with a predominance of fruit in autumn and insects in summer. In east-central Italy, the winter diet is almost completely frugivorous; fruit represents 84% of the total volume in the diet, with a 55% occurrence. Berries from juniperus (42-2%, Juniperus sp.) and from sloe (29-7%, Prunus spinosa) are the most common food items. In south-eastern Romania, birds (45-2% of the biomass) and mammals (36-1%) predominate in the diet; reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fruits are supplementary food. In the Caucasus, the diet is 85% murine rodents during the summer; vegetable matter forms a major part of the late summer and early fall food in some areas.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/restsites are inside rock crevices, stone heaps, hollow trees, abandoned burrows, and in buildings.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Stone Martens are solitary. They are good climbers, but rarely go high into trees. Home ranges vary between 12-211 ha, being larger in summer and smaller during winter. The home ranges of males are generally larger than those of females, and adult ranges are larger than immature animals. In central Italy, radio-telemetry revealed intra-sexual territoriality; males travelled longer distances than females, although home range sizes did not differ significantly between the sexes.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertlized eggs into the uterus, births do not occur until the following spring. The overall gestation lasts 230-275 days, although true gestation is c. 30 days. Littersize typically is three to four, but may reach up to eight. Sexual maturity may be attained at 15-27 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Stone Marten is considered common throughout most of Europe and Asia. It is hunted for its pelt, but this does not have the same quality of the European Pine Marten.</p> <p>Bibliography. Baghli et al. (2002), Canivenc et al. (1981), Feller (1993a, 1993b), Francis (2008), Genovesi &amp; Boitani (1997), Genovesi, Secchi &amp; Boitani (1996), Genovesi, Sinibaldi &amp; Boitani (1997), Lodé (1994), Lopez-Martin et al. (1992), Michelat et al. (2001), Padial et al. (2002), Pandolfi et al. (1996), Posluszny et al. (2007), Roberts (1977), Romanowski &amp; Lesinski (1991), Rondinini &amp; Boitani (2002), Sacchi &amp; Meriggi (1995), Stone &amp; Cook (2002), Stroganov (1969), Virgos et al. (2000), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5AFFB4CFF73AFAFCF7FB31	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B.text	038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes gwatkinsii Pinel 1792	<div><p>12.</p> <p>Nilgiri Marten</p> <p>Martes gwatkinsii</p> <p>French: Martre des Nilgiri / German: Sidindischer Buntmarder / Spanish: Marta india</p> <p>Taxonomy. Martes gwatkinsii Horsfield, 1851,</p> <p>Madras, India.</p> <p>The Nilgiri Marten has been considered a subspecies of the Yellow-throated Marten by some authors. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. India (Western Ghats).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 50-70 cm (male), tail 35-50 cm (male); weight 1-3 kg (male). The Nilgiri Marten is very similar to the Yellow-throated Marten. The pelage is mostly dark brown; the shoulders and torso are rufous-brown. There are distinct rusty-yellow to lemon-yellow markings on the throat. The skull is low and flat.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests, between 120 and 2383 m elevation.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Very little known, but there are reports of Nilgiri Martens preying on crows, Indian Giant Squirrels (Ratufa indica), Indian Spotted Chevrotains (Tragulus meminna), and Bengal monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis), and feeding on honey and nectar.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Appear to be diurnal. Nilgiri Martens are seen on the ground, but they atleast partly arboreal as several recent sightings were of individuals in the canopy or in the hollows of trees (Elaeocarpus sp.).</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Solitary individuals and pairs have been seen.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix III (India). Classified as Vulnerable in IUCN Red List. Very little is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Balakrishnan (2005), Christopher &amp; Jayson (1996), Kurup &amp; Joseph (2001), Madhusudan (1995), Pocock (1941a), Wirth &amp; Van Rompaey (1991), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5BFFB4CAAB38F2FC14F67B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7.text	038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes martes (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>13.</p> <p>European Pine Marten</p> <p>Martes martes</p> <p>French: Martre des pins / German: Baummarder / Spanish: Marta europea</p> <p>Other common names: Pine Marten</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela martes Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>At least thirteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Most of Europe up to Russia (W Siberia) and major Mediterranean islands (Mallorca, Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); also Middle East in Turkey, Caucasus, Iraq, and Iran.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 45-58 cm, tail 16-28 cm; weight 0.8-1.8 kg, adult males are larger than females. The European Pine Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail about half of the head and body length. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a light yellow patch on the throat and chest. The underfur is dark on the sides (it is lighter in the Stone Marten). The rhinarium is black. The plantar soles are hairy. There are two pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The third upper premolar has outer edges that are slightly concave (they are convex in the Stone Marten).</p> <p>Habitat. European Pine Martens are found in mature deciduous and coniferous forests. In Norway, they prefer spruce-dominated forests with large trees, and avoid clearcuts and open habitats. In north-east Belarus, the higher food abundance in woodlands on clay soil results in a higher population density and a more even distribution of European Pine Martens than in woodlands on sandy soil, where they mainly live in valley habitats.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists of small mammals (including mice, voles, and squirrels), birds, amphibians, invertebrates, honey, fruits, and berries. In western Scotland, European Pine Martens prey extensively on small mammals (particularly Field Voles Microtus agrestis) and birds. Invertebrates are also important dietary items, with a high intake of beetles (particularly Geotrupes sp.) from March to September. Predation on birds and the intake of earthwormsis highest during the winter;fruits (bramble and rowan berries) are also important in autumn and late winter. In the Scottish Highlands, the diet is very varied and includes small mammals, large mammal carrion, birds, insects, and fruits. Small mammals are consistently important, whereas large mammal carrion, fruits and insects, are seasonal; birds are eaten at all times of the year, but are not a major part of the diet. Although appearing to be opportunist feeders, European Pine Martens did have strong food preferences: of the small mammals eaten, 94% were Field Voles. Insect species were also selectively eaten. Beetles (Geotrupes stercorosus, Carabus sp., and Serica brunnea) and Hymenoptera (Vespula vulgaris and Bonibus spp.) were consumed in large numbers when encountered. The diet indicated that European Pine Martens foraged on the ground, in glade areas within the forest, around night-time. In northern boreal Finland, the analysis of 5677 scats revealed that the European Pine Marten is an opportunistic generalist;its most favored food being small rodents (especially Clethrionomys sp.). Snow cover decreased the consumption of Microtus sp., but not Clethrionomys sp. or the Wood Lemming (Myopus schisticolor). Other food items were: Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus), carcasses of Reindeer, eggs, birds, common frog (Rana temporaria), berries, and mushrooms. In north-east Belarus, the diet includes rodents, birds, fruits, and carrion. In woodlands on sandy soil, European Pine Martens specialize in feeding on carrion in the cold season and on berries in the warm season. In winter, Bank Vole densities and the biomass of carrion are crucial food factors. In central Poland, where the European Pine Marten and Stone Marten are sympatric, both species feed mainly on small rodents, birds, and fruits. Although there is a high overlap in the trophic niches of both species, European Pine Martens feed more frequently on rodents and birds and Stone Martens on fruits and insects. In north-west Spain, mammals constitute the main prey all year round (50% ingested biomass), followed by fruit (28-1%), birds (20-9%), insects (0-8%) and reptiles (0-2%). Small mammals are the major prey species (41:6% ingested biomass), mainly Apodemus sp. (19-1%). Mammals are the most consumed prey in spring (65:8%) and winter (79-5%). However, in summer and autumn, European Pine Martens feed mainly on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia) (summer: 49-7%, autumn: 59-9%), followed by mammals (summer: 27-2%, autumn: 30-9%). On the island of Minorca, a total of 28 different food items were identified in 723 scats. Small mammals were the most important food overall, constituting 34% of the volume. During March to April, small mammals were the principal food consumed (63% of volume), followed by birds (19%). From May to June, birds were the main food (40%), followed by small mammals. Plant material and insects were the most important foods from July to August, when they made up 68% ofthe diet. Excess food may be cached for later use.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal. On the island of Minorca, radio-collared European Pine Martens were primarily nocturnal, being active at night 53% of the time in autumn/winter and 59% in spring; daytime activity levels were 19% and 14%, respectively. In Poland, radio-telemetry revealed that 69% of the martens’ active time was during the night. The activity rhythms of European Pine Martens vary between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h, whereas in summer and autumn/winter, activity is bimodal, peaking at 18:00-22:00 h and 02:00-04:00 h. Female activity in spring is more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaks at 20:00-00:00 h. In autumn/winter, females have a bimodal rhythm, with peaks at 18:00-20:00 h and 02:00-06:00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms change in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, European Pine Martensstart their activity 73 min before sunset and finish 87 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males, but both sexes terminate their activity at the same time. On average, both sexes are active for around nine hours per day; they decrease their activity from 13 hours per day on warm days to 2-5 hours per day on cooler days. The number of activity bouts per day varies from one to six (mean 2:6); the activity bouts of males are significantly longer (4 hours, on average) than those of females (3 hours). In the cold season, the duration of short inactive bouts increases and inactivity lasts longer in females than in males. Den/restsites are in hollow trees or logs, under debris, or under snow. In Great Britain, most dens are associated with trees (44-3%), rocks (27-6%) and buildings (13-:8%); 69-6% of all dens are elevated, although only 9-8% are in elevated tree cavities, perhaps indicating a scarcity of arboreal cavities.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. European Pine Martens are terrestrial, but are also good climbers and will spend considerable time in trees exploring hollows and cavities in search of prey. Nightly movements may be up to 20-30 km. European Pine Martens are mostly solitary. Average home rangesize is 23 km? for males and 6- 5 km? for females. There is little or no overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but male home ranges greatly overlap those of one or more females. Independent subadults are tolerated within the exclusive ranges of adults of the same sex. In Bialowieza National Park, Poland, the mean annual home range of males (2-58 km?) was larger than that of females (1-41 km?). Daily ranges averaged 49 ha in females and 54 ha in males and constituted 0-3% to 88% of annual home ranges. Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December to January; female ranges increased in April to May, whereas those of males increased in June to September when they were mating. There was very little home range overlap between neighboring males (mean 4-6%) or females (mean 6%). Year-round, neighboring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other and females attracted males only during the spring/ summer mating season. Daily movement distance averaged 5- 1 km and the mean speed was 0-6 km /h. With increasing temperature, European Pine Martens moved faster, covered longer distances, and used larger daily ranges. Mobility and home range use were affected by breeding activity. In spring, females rearing cubs had longer daily movement distances and moved faster than non-breeding females. In summer, males covered larger daily ranges during the mating period than outside it. On the island of Minorca, female home ranges were non-overlapping and averaged 0-47 km? (range = 0-31- 0-66 km ®); two male home ranges were partially exclusive, measuring 4-92 km? and 9-19 km?*male home ranges averaged 16 times greater than those of females. In Poland, population densities ranged from 3-6 to 7-6 individuals per 10 km?.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in mid-summer, but because of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus, births do not take place until March or April of the following year. Total gestation is 230-275 days. During the breeding season, captive females exhibited one to four periods of sexual receptivity, which usually lasted one to four days and recurred at intervals of 6-17 days. Litter size is two to eight, usually three to five. In Great Britain, natal dens comprise buildings (44:3%), trees (22:8%), other man-made structures (17-1%), and rocks (14-:3%). At birth, the young weigh about 30 g. Their eyes open after 32-38 days, weaning occurs after six or seven weeks, and the young separate from the mother in the autumn. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The European Pine Marten was greatly hunted forits fur, leading to a serious decline of populations in the 1970s, but since then it has recovered in many areas.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bermejo &amp; Guitian (2000), Birks et al. (2005), Brainerd &amp; Rolstad (2002), Clevenger (1993a, 1993b, 1993c), Coope (2007), Goszczynski et al. (2007), Posluszny et al. (2007), Pulliainen &amp; Ollinmaki (1996), Putman (2000), Rosellini et al. (2007), Russell &amp; Storch (2004), Selas (1991), Sidorovich et al. (2005), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zalewski (2000, 2001), Zalewski et al. (1995, 2004).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5BFFB3CAB13626FC52F9D7	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.text	038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes melampus Pinel 1792	<div><p>14.</p> <p>Japanese Marten</p> <p>Martes melampus</p> <p>French: Martre du Japon / German: Japanischer Marder / Spanish: Marta japonesa</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela melampus Wagner, 1841,</p> <p>Japan.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. m. melampus Wagner, 1841 — Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku Is).</p> <p>M. m. coreensis Kuroda &amp; Mori, 1923 — North and South Korea.</p> <p>M. m. tsuensis Thomas, 1897 — Japan (Tsushima I).</p> <p>Introduced on Sado and Hokkaido Is.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 47-54.5 cm, tail 17-223 cm; average weight is 1-5 kg for males and 1 kg for females. The Japanese Marten has a long body, short limbs, and a bushy tail. The pelage is yellowish-brown to dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the throat and upper chest.</p> <p>Habitat. Broadleaf forests.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, invertebrates (insects, centipedes, spiders, crustaceans, earthworms), fruits, and seeds. In the Kuju Highland on Kyushu, the mean frequencies of occurrence of food items in scats were 79-7% animals and 511% plants. The diet comprised mainly insects, mammals, crustaceans, and 36 plant species. There were high frequencies of insects from June to October, mammals in February, April and December, crustaceans in August and October, and plants in October and December. Scats collected from the Tsushima Islands revealed that small mammals comprised a relatively stable proportion of the diet throughout the year (range 8-2 to 16-8%), whereas birds showed a peak from January (11-3%) to March (14:6%). Amphibians, mostly small adult frogs (Rana tsushimensis), were most common in the diet in February (9-7%). Insects were the most common animal prey, but their proportions in the diet varied greatly from 10-5% in May to 27-8% in August, and they were consistently least common throughout the winter. Centipedes (mostly Scolopendra subspinipes) were frequently eaten during May andJune (16:9-17-4%). Plant materials were the most common of all foods throughout the year (28:8-53-9%). Berries and seeds occurred at the highest frequency in April (41%, especially Rubus hirsutus and Elaeagnus pungens) and in September (47-3%, especially Vitis ficifolia and Ficus electa).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal. Resting sites are in trees and in ground burrows.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. On the Tsushima Islands, the mean home range size was 0-7 km? for eight males and 0-63 km? for three females; home ranges were not significantly different between the sexes and ranged from 0-5- 1 km?®. There waslittle overlap of home ranges.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The subspecies M. m. tsuensisis classified as Vulnerable. The Japanese Marten is trapped forits fur during the hunting season (1 December to 31 January), except on Hokkaido Island. The subspecies M. m. tsuensis, found only on the Tsushima Islands, has been protected from trapping since 1971. Predation by feral dogs and highway mortality appear to be major threats.</p> <p>Bibliography. Arai et al. (2003), Kuroda &amp; Mori (1923), Otani (2002), Shusei et al. (2003), Tatara (1994), Tatara &amp; Doi (1994), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5CFFB3CAF83A9CF95FFD9C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.text	038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes pennanti Pinel 1792	<div><p>15.</p> <p>Fisher</p> <p>Martes pennanti</p> <p>French: Pekan / German: Fischermarder / Spanish: Marta pekan</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela pennant: Erxleben, 1777,</p> <p>Eastern Canada.</p> <p>Recent molecular studies have suggested that the Fisher should be placed in its own genus, Pekania. Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. p. pennanti Exxleben, 1777 — E Canada and NE USA.</p> <p>M. p. columbiana Goldman, 1935 — W Canada and and USA (Rocky Mts).</p> <p>M. p. pacifica Rhoads, 1898 — W Canada (coastal British Columbia) and W USA.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 55-65 cm (males), 45-556 cm (females); tail 30-50 cm (males), 30-40 cm (females); weight 3.5-5.5 kg (males), 2.2-5 kg (females), adult males are roughly twice the weight of females. The Fisher has a long body, short limbs, a bushy tail, and large feet with strong claws. It is the largest member of the genus Martes. The pelage is silvery-brown to black; the back of the neck and head are often grayish or silver. White markings on the throat and upper chest are common. The skull has a strong sagittal crest, which is particularly well- developed in older males. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P4/4.M1/2=238,</p> <p>Habitat. Fishers are found in dense forests with a closed canopy; they avoid open areas. In north-eastern Canada and United States, they also occur in fragmented, mixed woodlots interspersed with agricultural land. In California, mid-seral Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor) forest types compose the greatest proportion of Fisher home ranges in the Coastal Mountains; the greatest proportion of home ranges in the Sierra Nevadas are in the intermediate tree size class with dense canopy closure, and in mixed conifer forests. In south-central Maine, Fishers use a variety of forest types, especially during summer. During winter, they hunt intensively in dense patches of coniferous undergrowth (where Snowshoe Hare tracks are common) and use deciduous stands less than expected by availability.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes lagomorphs (especially the Snowshoe Hare), North American Porcupines, ungulate carrion, small mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. During the winter in British Columbia, 18 types of mammalian and avian prey were found in 256 stomachs. The most commonly occurring prey species were Snowshoe Hares, Red Squirrels, and Southern Red-backed Voles. The diet varied between sexes: female fishers consumed small prey more frequently than did males. In the mountains of California’s Sierra Nevada, where the Snowshoe Hare and North American Porcupine are absent, other mammals are the most frequent food item; however, reptiles (20-4%) and insects (55-7%) are major components of the diet, and at least six fungal species are also eaten. In the mixed-conifer forests of the southern Sierra Nevada, where Fishers and American Martens occur together, the diets of both species are more diverse than reported elsewhere in North America. Although the diet of Fishers includes more birds,lizards, hypogeous fungi, and insects than that of American Martens, the dietary overlap is high. The great diversity of the diet in these two species may be due to the absence or rarity of large prey (such as Snowshoe Hares and North American Porcupines) or to a greater diversity of available prey types in the southern Sierra Nevada compared to other areas. In south-eastern Manitoba, Fishers prey heavily on Snowshoe Hares (84:3% frequency occurrence). In Vermont, most of the diet is mammalian (72%), with avian prey (15%) and fruit (10%) of secondary importance. In south-central Maine, winter foods include apples, porcupines, hares, Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), Red Squirrels, Northern Flying Squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), mice (Peromyscus), voles (Clethrionomys gapperi and Microtus), and shrews (Sorex and Blarina). The fall and winter diet in West Virginia and Maryland includes ten mammal species, four bird species, one gastropod species, and two types of vegetation. White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most frequent dietary component. Medium-sized mammals such as Northern Raccoon and small mammals such as Peromyscus sp. are also major dietary components, although small mammals occur less frequently than reported elsewhere. Diet overlap between the sexes was found to be considerable and differences between the sexes in the occurrence of major food groups (small mammals, medium-sized mammals, large mammals, birds, and fruit) were not significant. Hunting strategies vary with prey type. Snowshoe Hares are caught after rapid zig-zagging chases. Fishers hunt porcupines by searching for their dens. The arboreal skills of Fishers enable them to chase porcupines down trees to the ground, where they kill them after lengthy attacks, during which the Fisher repeatedly bites the porcupine’s face (which is unprotected by quills).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Active during the day and night; most activity occurs shortly before sunrise and after sunset. Males and females show similar amounts of activity, and both sexes are active more frequently in summer than winter. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or trees, brush piles, or in rock crevices. Fishers in California select restsites in forested areas that have dense canopies, large trees, and steep slopes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevada in California, standing trees (live and dead) are the most common resting structures, with California black oak (Quercus kelloggit) and Douglas-fir the most frequent species in the Sierra and Coastal areas, respectively. Resting structures are within the largest diameter trees available, averaging 117- 3 cm for live conifers, 119- 8 cm for conifer snags, and 69 cm for hardwoods. Females use cavity structures more often than males, while males use platform structures significantly more than females. The diversity of types and sizes of rest structures used by males suggests that males are less selective than females. In the Sierra Nevada study area, where surface water is less common, Fishers prefer rest sites within 100 m of water. In a central hardwood forest, Fishers were found to rest in hardwood, softwood, and mixedwood forest types in proportion to their availability in the summer, but tended to avoid hardwood areas in winter. They used nests, cavities, and burrows in proportionto their availability in winter, but in the summer, Fishers preferred nests to cavities, and burrows were not used. Males tended to use larger cavity trees and mixed forest stands more often than females. During spring, summer, and fall in south-central Maine, Fishers prefer using rest sites in the branches of conifers, within coniferous stands.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Fishers are primarily terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are capable of long movements in short time spans; individuals have been reported to move 90 km in three days, 45 km in two days, and 10-11 km in only a few hours. Usual daily movements are 1-5- 3 km. Movements of males are greatest during the spring breeding season; non-reproductive females move similar distances during all seasons. Adult Fishers are solitary outside of the breeding season. Mean home range sizes are up to 40 km * for males and up to 20 km * for females. There is little overlap between the ranges of individuals of the same sex, but there is extensive overlap between the ranges of opposite sexes. In the Coastal Mountains and Sierra Nevada in California, the mean home range size of males (39- 4 km?) was significantly greater than that of females (9- 8 km ”); the home ranges of females were significantly greater in the Coastal area than in the Sierras. In eastern Ontario, the mean adult home range size was 4- 4 km?, with up to 71% overlap of adjacent intrasexual home ranges. In Quebec, in an area where trapping had been prohibited for more than 20 years, mean home range size was 9- 2 km ” for adult males and 5- 4 km?*for adult females. In south-central Maine, the home ranges of females were stable between seasons and years, but males moved extensively from February through April, and their ranges shifted between years. Home ranges averaged 30- 9 km ” for males (range = 10-6-78- 2 km?) and 16- 3 km? for females (range = 8-1-39- 1 km?). The ranges of adults usually did not overlap with others of the same sex, except for males during spring. Fishers of both sexes shifted or enlarged their ranges to include areas left vacant when others of the same sex were removed. Population density in preferred habitat is one per 2:6-7- 5 km? but in other areas it may be as low as one per 200 km *. The adult population density was calculated as 327/ 100 km * in eastern Ontario, 2.7/ 10 km? in Quebec, and 1/2:8-10- 5 km? (summer) and 1/8- 3-20 km * (winter) in south-central Maine.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from March to May. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur from January to early April. Litter size is up to six, but averages two to three. Natal and maternal dens are located high up in hollow trees. The young weigh less than 50 g and are born with their eyes and ears closed. The eyes open around seven weeks, weaning begins after two to three months, and separation occurs in the fifth month. Females reach adult weight after six months and males after one year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Fishers are considered common throughout most of their range, particularly in Canada, but they may be threatened in the western USA. They are trapped for their fur. In the 19" and early 20™ centuries, excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging led to a decline in Fisher populations over most ofits range. Closed hunting seasons, protective regulations, and reintroductions were then initiated in many areas. The Fisher has made a comeback in parts of the eastern United States, but it is still vulnerable in the western states, where it seems to be dependent on old-growth forests.</p> <p>Bibliography. Arthur &amp; Krohn (1991), Arthur et al. (1989a, 1989b), Dzialak et al. (2005), Garant &amp; Crete (1997), Kilpatrick &amp; Rego (1994), Koen et al. (2007), Koepfli et al. (2008), Paragi et al. (1994), Powell (1979, 1981, 1993), Powell et al. (2003), Raine (1983, 1987), Van Why &amp; Giuliano (2001), Weir &amp; Corbould (2007), Wozencraft (2005), Zielinski, Duncan et al. (1999), Zielinski, Truex et al. (2004a, 2004Db).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5CFFB2CFF33E59FC15F5E9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF.text	038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Martes zibellina (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>16.</p> <p>Sable</p> <p>Martes zibellina</p> <p>French: Martre zibeline / German: Zobel / Spanish: Marta cibelina</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela zibellina Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Russia.</p> <p>Thirty subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. China, Japan (Hokkaido), Mongolia, North Korea, and Russia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 38-56 cm (males), 35-51 cm (females); tail 12-19 cm (males), 11.5-17.2 cm (females); weight 800-1800 g (males), 700-1560 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Sable has a long body and short legs, and a short bushy tail around a third of the head and body length. The pelage is long and silky, and varies from pale grayish-brown to dark brown, almost black. The summer pelageis shorter and darker. The top of the head is lighter than the body, and the white neck patch is vestigial. The soles are covered with extremely dense, stiff hairs. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4,M 1/2 = 38.</p> <p>Habitat. Sables are found in deciduous and coniferous forests, and often occur in mountain regions and near streams. They typically prefer mature forests of large trees with a dense canopy. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, Sables prefer late succession mixed forests, with large trees and coarse woody debris, intermediate to dense tree canopy cover, and high densities and diameters of larch tree holes. They avoid open areas, but use the middle of slopes and slope bottoms, and rest on ridge tops with abundant logs, boles, or roots.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists mostly of small mammals (rodents, pikas, hares), but also includes birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, insects, fruits, honey, nuts, and berries. The summer diet in the Middle Yenisei taiga, Siberia, comprises microtine rodents, mainly Northern Red-backed Voles Clethrionomys rutilus (52-3% of the biomass). Plant food (seeds of Siberian pine Pinus sibirica and berries of Vaccinium sp.) is also frequently eaten (79-4% of scats and 19-9% of biomass). Shrews, birds, and insects are supplementary food (25% of biomass). In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the winter diet is mainly small mammals (54-1%), berries and pine nuts (32:4%), birds (12-5%), eggs (2:2%), and ants (1%). The main small mammal prey is Gray Red-backed Voles (Clethrionomys rufocanus) and Northern Red-backed Voles (Myodes rutilus), followed by Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and Siberian Chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus). Birds include hazel grouses Tetrastes bonasia (8-1%), Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius (0-7%), and great tits Parus major (0-5%). Plant items include berries of Vaccinium vitisideae (20-9%) and pine nuts of Pinus pumila (8:8%). In north-eastern China, remains of mammals were found in 89% ofscats, followed in frequency by soft and hard mast, and birds. Sables selected for C. rufocanus more than shrews (Sorex caecutiens), but ate C. rutilus in proportion to its availability. In eastern Hokkaido, Japan, the diet includes mammals, insects, plants, birds, reptiles, amphibians,fish, and crustaceans. Mammals are the commonest food items throughout the year, with voles Clethrionomyssp. (frequency of occurrence 56:5%), Siberian Chipmunks (19-3%) and mice Apodemus sp. (14:6%), most often found in scats. Insects are eaten mainly in the summer (48:8%) and less often in other seasons (9:3% on average). Plant materials, chiefly fruits, are consumed mainly in autumn (45-7%) and winter (68-4%), but are rare in the diet during spring (5-1%) and summer (1-3%).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Active both during the day and at night. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, radio-collared Sables were found to be nocturnal in spring and winter, and diurnal in summer and autumn. Den/rest sites are in holes among or under rocks, in hollow logs, under tree roots, or in burrows (which may be several meters long and lead to an enlarged nest chamber lined with dry vegetation and fur). In Japan, Sables prefer resting in dense tree forests that have many tree species and woody debris.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Sables are mainly terrestrial, but are also good tree climbers. They are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges may be up to 30 km?, especially in the desolate forests of Siberia. In the Daxinganling Mountains, China, the average home range size of males was 13-03 km® and 7-18 km? for females. There was considerable overlap of home ranges between males and females (average 62%), but virtually no overlap between male individuals. In a cooltemperate mixed forest in Japan, home ranges were 0-50- 1-78 km * (mean 1-12 km?); the home ranges of some individuals overlapped extensively. Reported population densities vary from one per 1-5 km? in pine forests to one per 25 km?® in larch forests.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from June to August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed and births occur the following spring, in April or May. Total gestation is 250-300 days; actual embryonic development is 25-40 days. Litter size is one to five, usually three or four. The young weigh 30-35 g at birth, open their eyes after 30-36 days, emerge from the den at 38 days, and are weaned after seven weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 15-16 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Sable is considered common throughout most ofits distribution. It is hunted for its fur, which is one of the most valuable furs produced in Europe and Asia. Sables are also raised on fur farms to help sustain the fur trade; over 25,000 are harvested annually. This species was once common in China, but is now considered rare.</p> <p>Bibliography. Brzezinski (1994), Buskirk et al. (1996a, 1996b), Ma et al. (1999), Miyoshi &amp; Higashi (2005), Murakami (2003), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Jin et al. (1996), Xu, Jiang, Ma, Li &amp; Buskirk (1997), Zhang &amp; Ma (2000).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA5DFFB2CAAC36CAF8BEF3BF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E.text	038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Melogale everetti (Thomas 1895)	<div><p>17.</p> <p>Bornean Ferret-badger</p> <p>Melogale everetti</p> <p>French: Mélogale d'Everett / German: Borneo-Sonnendachs / Spanish: Melandro de Borneo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Helictis everetti Thomas, 1895,</p> <p>Borneo.</p> <p>Some authors consider M. everetii and/or orientalis as conspecific with M. personata. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. N Borneo.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight 1-2 kg. The Bornean Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The dorsal pelage is dark brown throughout, including the tail. The undersides are rn The head is black with a facial mask that consists of white or yellow patches, which are variable in size and shape. The claws on the forefeet are well- developed for digging. The skull and teeth are small.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests and grasslands, from 900 to 3000 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is said to include insects and other invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes or rock crevices.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Appears to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also reported to be an agile tree climber.</p> <p>Breeding. A litter of three is said to be common.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN Red List. The only recorded sightings of Bornean Ferret-badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. There is no information on its susceptibility to habitat change or what hunting levels occur in its range. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Dinets (2003), IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Long &amp; Killingley (1983), Neal &amp; Cheeseman (1996), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAFF3DF5FD3BF96E	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.text	038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Melogale moschata (Gray 1831)	<div><p>18.</p> <p>Small-toothed Ferret-badger</p> <p>Melogale moschata</p> <p>French: Mélogale de Chine / German: China-Sonnendachs / Spanish: Melandro chino</p> <p>Other common names: Chinese Ferret-badger</p> <p>Taxonomy. Helictis moschata Gray, 1831, S China.</p> <p>Six subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. m. moschata Gray, 1831 — SE China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan &amp; Hainan I) and N Laos.</p> <p>M. m. ferreogrisea Hilzheimer, 1905 — C China.</p> <p>M. m. millsi Thomas, 1922 — S China (NW Yunnan) through N Myanmar to NE India.</p> <p>M. m. sorella G. M.. Allen, 1929 — E China (Fujian).</p> <p>M. m. subaurantiaca Swinhoe, 1862 — Taiwan.</p> <p>M. m. taxilla Thomas, 1925 — Vietnam.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 30-40 cm, tail 10-15 cm; weight 0.8-1.6 kg. The tail is less than half of the head and body length. The Small-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage varies from gray to black, with the darker fur contrasting with the light patches on the neck and head. The head has a distinct blackand-white pattern, generally with more black than the Large-toothed Ferret-badger but this is quite variable. The white stripe on the top of the head is narrow and incomplete and rarely extends past the shoulders. The tail is bushy, pale brown in color, and with a white tip. The limbs are short, and the feet have strong, thick, fairly straight claws. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is long, high, and smooth, with widely separated temporal ridges. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are relatively small, compared to Large-toothed Ferret-badger, with distinct gaps between the premolars. In the upper jaw: labial edge of P* is slightly concave; P* length over 6 mm; P' is slightly smaller than P*. In the lower jaw: M, talonid is without distinct cusps.</p> <p>Habitat. Tropical and subtropical forests, wooded hillsides, grasslands, and cultivated areas. Often occurs in close proximity to humans.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is said to include invertebrates (insects, earthworms), small mammals, birds, frogs, lizards, eggs, and fruits. In Taiwan, invertebrates had a relative importance index of 89%. In China, 163 scats contained 33% seeds and at least eight plant species. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers find food mainly by smell and sound and use their digging claws and probing snouts to dig for roots and earthworms.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal and crepuscular. Active year-round, but less active during the winter months. During the spring, both sexes are active outside their burrows for around eight hours; during the winter this decreases to less than six-and-a-half hours. Rest sites are in burrows, rock crevices, or in trees. In south-east China, radio-collared Small-toothed Ferret-badgers used a variety of shelters as daybeds including rodent dens (47%), firewood stacks (20%), open fields (17%), and rock piles around houses (5%). The distance between daily resting sites averaged 101 m and they often (51% of occasions) returned to rest sites used the previous day.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but they may climb trees. In south-east China, the size of resting home ranges (daybed locations only) of six radio-collared individuals averaged 11 ha (range 1-25 ha); no sex-specific differences in home range size were detected.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in March. In south-east China, capture data suggests that Small-toothed Ferret-badgers give birth in May. Gestation is from 60 to 80 days. Litter size is usually one to four. The young are born blind and well-furred; the eyes remain closed for at least two weeks. There is one record of a female still nursing two nearly full-grown young in June.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Very little is known about Small-toothed Ferret-badgers and more field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laos and Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries. Small-toothed Ferret-badgers are hunted for their fur and meat in China and north-east India; in China, their fur is used for collars and jackets.</p> <p>Bibliography. Allen (1929), Francis (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Neal (1986), Storz &amp; Wozencraft (1999), Wang &amp; Fuller (2003a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Zhou et al. (2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA40FFAFCAF93B33F7E5FA13	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.text	038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Melogale orientalis (Horsfield 1821)	<div><p>19.</p> <p>Javan Ferret-badger</p> <p>Melogale orientalis</p> <p>French: Mélogale de Java / German: Java-Sonnendachs / Spanish: Melandro javanés</p> <p>Taxonomy. Gulo orientalis Horsfield, 1821,</p> <p>Java</p> <p>The Javan Ferret-badger was previously considered a subspecies of the Large-toothed Ferret-badger. Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subpecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. o. orientalis Horsﬁeld Horsfield,, 182 1821 - E Java and Bali.</p> <p>M. o. sundaicus Sody, 1937 — W Java.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 16-17 cm; weight about 2 kg. The Javan Ferret-badger has a small, slender body, and a long snout. The pelage is dark brown, with paler undersides. The head is black with a facial mask consisting of white or yellow patches. The skull is small.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests and grasslands.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Said to be omnivorous.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.</p> <p>Breeding. Littersize is said to vary from one to three.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN Red List. Recorded recently in Central Java (perhaps Dieng Plateau), Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, and Gunung Gede. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeeley (1991), Long (1992), Long &amp; Killingley (1983), Neal &amp; Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Riffel (1991), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA40FFAFCFF139D0F7A2F5CE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.text	038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1831	<div><p>20.</p> <p>Large-toothed Ferret-badger</p> <p>Melogale personata</p> <p>French: Mélogale indien / German: Burma-Sonnendachs / Spanish: Melandro birmano</p> <p>Other common names: Burmese Ferret-badger</p> <p>Taxonomy. Melogale personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831,</p> <p>Southern Burma.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. p. personata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831 — NE India to S Myanmar and Thailand.</p> <p>M. p. nipalensis Hodgson, 1836 — Nepal.</p> <p>M. p. pierrei Bonhote, 1903 — Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-40 cm, tail 15-21 cm; weight 1.5-3 kg. The tail is over half the head and body length. The Large-toothed Ferret-badger has a small, slender body and a long snout. The pelage is coarse, thick and short, and varies from fawn brown to dark brown. The sides of the body are heavily frosted white, contrasting slightly with the darker back. The white stripe on the back of the neck extends at least to the middle of the back, and often as far as the base of the tail. The head has a distinct pattern of black (or dark brown) and white patches, which varies among individuals. The bushy tail is pale and usually white on the distal half. The sagittal crest on the skull is large and low. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 1/2 = 38. The teeth are larger than Small-toothed Ferret-badger, especially P*. In the upper jaw: P* length over 8 mm; P' is significantly smaller than P=.</p> <p>Habitat. Reported to live in forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is said to include insects, earthworms, snails, small vertebrates (lizards, frogs, rodents, small birds), fruit, nuts, and eggs.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal. Rests in underground burrows or under rocks during the day.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Believed to be solitary. Mainly terrestrial, but also said to be an agile tree climber.</p> <p>Breeding. Litter size is reported to be up to three, with the young usually born in May and June.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN Red List. Very little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. In Laos and Vietnam, there is often some confusion between Small-toothed and Large-toothed Ferret Badgers, so careful distinction between these two species needs to be made in these two countries.</p> <p>Bibliography. Francis (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Long &amp; Killingley (1983), Neal &amp; Cheeseman (1996), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA40FFAECFF63693FD02FA87	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.text	038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Galictis cuja (Molina 1782)	<div><p>21.</p> <p>Lesser Grison</p> <p>Galictis cuja</p> <p>French: Petit Grison / German: Kleingrison / Spanish: Grison chico</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela cuja Molina, 1782,</p> <p>Chile.</p> <p>Four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>G. c. cuja Molina, 1782 — W Argentina and Chile.</p> <p>G. c. furax Thomas, 1907 — NE Argentina, C &amp; E Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.</p> <p>G. c. huronax Thomas, 1921 — C and S Argentina.</p> <p>G. c. luteola Thomas, 1907 — W Bolivia and SE Peru.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-508 cm, tail 12-19.3 cm; weight 1.2-5 kg. The Lesser Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-gray to brown; the face, throat, upper chest, and limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The claws are strong and curved. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=234</p> <p>Habitat. Lesser Grisons are found in a wide variety of habitats, from sea level to 4200 m, including seashore, arid scrub, chaco desert, Gran Chaco, Chiquitano woodland, open thorn woodland, cerrado, caatinga, savannah, steppes, evergreen shrublands, semideciduous lower montane forest, brushy areas below the timberline, Tucuman-Bolivian woodlands, wet forest, Brazilian Atlantic forest, high Andean shrublands, Polylepis woodlands, puna grasslands, marshes, high elevation wet meadows “bofedales”, Equisetum-dominated scrub, overgrazed pastures, and agricultural areas of the Pampas. Most localities in Bolivia are between 2000 and 4200 m. Lesser Grisons frequently occur near water.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals (especially rodents and lagomorphs), birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In central Chile, the diet was found to consist of 352% rodents, 26-5% introduced European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 20-7% unidentified mammals, 14-7% reptiles (Liolaemus chiliensis and Philodryas chamissonis), and 2-9% unidentified passeriform birds. Average prey weight was 350 g. In Patagonia, Argentina, the diet is 46-:3% rodents, 18-9% lagomorphs, 17-9% lizards, and 16-8% birds; as lagomorph density increases,its percentage in the diet increases up to 96-8%. In coastal south-eastern Argentine, mammals, including rodents (79-1%, at least eight species) and European Hare Lepus europaeus (20-9%), are the main prey items year-round; birds (7-8%) and invertebrates (5-2%) are also eaten. Lesser Grisons frequently prey on guinea pigs and are capable of running down and killing Dwarf Cavies (Microcavia australis).</p> <p>Activity patterns. Active mainly during the day, with occasional activity at night. Rest sites are in hollow trees, crevices, boulder piles, burrows of other animals, at the base of Polylepis trees, amongst tree roots and rocks, or in banks adjacent to wet meadows at high elevations. Four or five individuals may occupy a burrow system, which may reach 4 m in depth. One burrow system occupied by five individuals in Chile was on a slope among rocks and roots of a Guevina avellana tree in Nothofagus obliqua woods; leaves of Greiga obscured the entrances.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mostly solitary, although pairs or small groups are occasionally seen.</p> <p>Breeding. Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is two to five. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Lesser Grisons are generally considered not to be threatened, butfield studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Wozencraft (2005), Yensen &amp; Tarifa (2003b), Zapata et al. (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA41FFAECAA33A7FF68BFD51	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.text	038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Galictis vittata Schreber 1776	<div><p>22.</p> <p>Greater Grison</p> <p>Galictis vittata</p> <p>French: Grand Grison / German: Grofser Grison / Spanish: Grison</p> <p>Taxonomy. Viverra vittata Schreber, 1776,</p> <p>Surinam.</p> <p>Four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>G. v. vittata Schreber, 1776 — the Guianas and Venezuela.</p> <p>G. v. andina Thomas, 1903 — Bolivia and Peru.</p> <p>G. v. brasiliensis Thunberg, 1820 — Brazil.</p> <p>G. v. canaster Nelson, 1901 — Mexico to Colombia and Ecuador.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 47.5-55 cm, tail 16 cm; weight 1.4-3.3 kg. The Greater Grison has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is smoky gray on the upper sides; the face, throat, undersides, and all four limbs are black. A white stripe extends across the forehead and down the sides of the neck, separating the black of the face from the gray or brown of the back. The skull is strong and massive. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=34</p> <p>Habitat. Greater Grisons are found in virgin and secondary low-elevation rainforests, lower montane forests, upland monte alto forests, tropical dry forests, closed deciduous forests, cerrado, yungas woodlands, shrub woodlands, chaco, palm savannah, secondary growth, open fields, plantations, and partially flooded rice fields adjacent to ranches. They are often found near rivers, streams, and wetlands, from sea level to 1500 m elevation, but mostly below 500 m. However, on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains in Bolivia they range up to 2000 m. A radio-collared female spent 27-8% of her time in open habitats (69-2% of her prey came from there); the remaining 72-2% was spent in closed woodlands and forests (where she obtained 27-8% of her prey).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and fruit. In Venezuela, seven stomachs contained remains of diurnal rodents (Sigmodon alstoni), a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), a dove (Zenaida auriculata), and an eel-like fish. Two other stomachs contained an opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), an unidentified rodent, a lizard (Ameiva ameiva), and an amphibian (Colestethus auriculata). In Para, Brazil, a Greater Grison was observed carrying a large toad (Bufo marinus) in its mouth, apparently unaffected by the toad’s toxic skin glands. In Panama, a Greater Grison was seen pursuing an Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) at 08:15 h; another Agouti was attacked in a river at midday. In Peru, a Greater Grison was observed eating a piranha-like characin fish. In north-eastern Brazil, Greater Grisons are major predators of Rock Cavies or Mocos (Kerodon rupestris), which they attack in their burrows. The stomachs of two males and two females contained Moco remains and another species of cavy (Galea spixii). Greater Grisons hunt alone, in pairs, or in small family groups. An adult female was seen travelling in association with a nearly grown male and a three-fourths grown female.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily diurnal, but occasionally active at night. A captive male from Ecuador was nearly 100% diurnal, with a rest period of several hours at midday. Three captive Greater Grisons in Panama were very active in the early morning and late afternoon and rested for four to five hours around midday. Greater Grisons forage during the day at Cocha Cashu, Peru. However, in Venezuela, a radio-collared individual was active for 10-12 h per day, mostly at night (77-1% of the time); all sightings were in the daytime (06:00-11:25 h). Rest sites are undertree roots or in hollow logs, underground burrows, or rock cavities.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Primarily terrestrial, but also excellent swimmers and able to climb trees. In Venezuela, two individuals were observed climbing into a tree, and on another occasion, a female and a young climbed 2 m into a palm tree, while an adult male waited below looking upward. The two grisons scratched around in the tree, knocking down wood and debris, which were examined by the male. Greater Grisons are mostly solitary, but occasionally travel in pairs or small groups. One female in Venezuela had a home range of 4- 2 km * She traveled 1 km (straight line) between consecutive daily restsites and moved 2-3 km per 24-h period. Population densities have been estimated at 1-2-4 individuals/km?, but radio-tracking data suggests much lower densities.</p> <p>Breeding. Gestation is around 39 days. Litter size is one to four. Offspring have been observed in March, August, September, and October. A neonate female, with umbilical cord still attached, weighed less than 50 g. She was covered in short fur and her eyes were closed. The eyes opened after two weeks, and by three weeks she could eat meat. Full growth was reached by four months. The testes of three captive males descended at c. four months of age.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Greater Grisons are considered endangered in some parts of their range, such as Mexico and Costa Rica. In Venezuela, they are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. Greater Grisons occur in medium (860 ha) and large (36,000 ha) fragments in Brazilian Atlantic forests, but are absent from small (60-80 ha) patches of forest. Their fur has no commercial value, but skins and live animals are sold as decorations or pets.</p> <p>Bibliography. \Wozencraft (2005), Yensen &amp; Tarifa (2003a).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA41FFADCFDA3F12FC81FDB0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.text	038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Ictonyx libycus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1833)	<div><p>24.</p> <p>Saharan Striped Polecat</p> <p>Ictonyx libycus</p> <p>French: Zorille de Libye / German: Streifenwiesel / Spanish: Huron del Sahara</p> <p>Other common names: Saharan Striped Weasel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela libyca Hemprich &amp; Ehrenberg, 1833,</p> <p>Libya.</p> <p>Four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>I. l. libycus Hemprich &amp; Ehrenberg, 1833 — Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia.</p> <p>I. l. multivittata Wagner, 1841 — E Chad and C Sudan.</p> <p>I. l. oralis Thomas &amp; Hinton, 1920 — Egypt, Eritrea, and N Sudan.</p> <p>I. l. rothschildi Thomas &amp; Hinton, 1920 — Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20.7-26 cm, tail 114- 18 cm; weight 200-600 g, adult males are slightly larger than females. The Saharan Striped Polecat has a black and white pelage, with poorly defined black and white stripes along the sides of the body. The head is black with a white patch on the upperlip; there is a large white mark on the forehead. The limbs are short. The tail is short and bushy, and mostly white except for the black tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is small, with a short rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.</p> <p>Habitat. Sub-desert habitats, especially stony areas, steppes, and areas of sparse brush. Also found in cultivated areas and coastal sand dunes.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet apparently consists of rodents, small birds, eggs,lizards, and insects. Food is located by smell and by sound, and the front claws are used to dig up food items.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Nocturnal. Rest sites are in burrows or rock crevices.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mostly solitary.</p> <p>Breeding. Gestation is 37 to 77 days. Litter size is one to three. The young are born from January to March. They are born blind and covered with short hair. In captivity, neonates were 5 g at birth; they took some solid food after five weeks, and weighed 250 g at two months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. A poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Hufnagl (1972), Niethammer (1987), Rosevear (1974), Setzer (1957), Sitek (1995), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA42FFADCFED3AA8F5A9F3E7	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.text	038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Vormela peregusna Blasius 1884	<div><p>23.</p> <p>Marbled Polecat</p> <p>Vormela peregusna</p> <p>French: Zorille marbrée / German: Tigeriltis / Spanish: Turén jaspeado</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela peregusna Guldenstadt, 1770,</p> <p>Russia.</p> <p>Six subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>V. p. peregusna Giildenstadt, 1770 — Russia.</p> <p>V. p. alpherakii Birula, 1910 — Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.</p> <p>V. p. euxina Pocock, 1936 — Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.</p> <p>V. p. negans G. S. Miller, 1910 — NC &amp; W China and S Mongolia.</p> <p>V.p. pallidior Stroganov, 1948 — Kazakhstan.</p> <p>V. p. syriaca Pocock, 1936 — Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 31-32: 6 cm (males), 28.8-47.7 cm (females), tail 16-5— 17- 5 cm (males), 15.5-17.8 cm (females); weight 330-715 g (males), 295-600 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Marbled Polecat has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish and is mottled with reddish or brown markings. The ears are large and white, the muzzle is short, and there is a conspicuous white stripe across the head. The area around the mouth is white. The fur is black around the eyes, giving a masked appearance. Thetail is bushy and covered with black and white hairs. The limbs are short and the feet have long claws. There are five pairs of mammae. The skull is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.</p> <p>Habitat. The Marbled Polecatis found in open desert, semi-desert, semi-arid rocky areas in upland valleys, steppe country, arid subtropical scrub forest, and low hill ranges. It is generally not found on higher mountain ranges, but has been recorded up to 2100 m. In Europe, the Marbled Polecat inhabits steppes with sparse hawthorn bush and sloe trees, and oldfields. In western Yugoslavia, they occur in montane-steppe and woodland-steppe areas. In eastern Yugoslavia, Marbled Polecats are found from river terraces and low hills to mountainous meadows. In western Serbia, they inhabit the outskirts of settlements. On the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, one adult male was captured in a sparsely vegetated sandy area. In Lebanon, Marbled Polecats are restricted to cultivated areas in close association with humans. In Israel, they live in the steppes and hills. In Central Asia, the Marbled Polecat is found in oases, tugai (river-valley complexes of forest, scrub, and meadow), dunes with sparse bush vegetation, clay steppes, and salt marshes;it is also found in irrigated country, melon patches, and vegetable fields, and sometimes enters buildings to forage. In Kazakhstan, Marbled Polecats are found in shifting dune country containing saxaul (Haloxylon), winter fat (Ewrotia ceratoides), and pea tree, and in salt marshes overgrown in saxaul. Marbled Polecats are also found in wormwood deserts, semi-deserts, and occasionally fescue and needle-grass steppes of the foothills. In north-western China and the Ordos Desert, the Marbled Polecat occurs in forested areas, and in Siberia, it inhabits the western foothills of the Altai and the Cuya steppe.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals (ground squirrels Spermophilus sp., Gray Dwarf Hamsters Cricetulus migratorius, Libyan Jirds Meriones libycus, mice, voles, and rabbits), birds, reptiles, amphibians, snails, insects, and fruits. In Quetta and Kandahar, rodents, small birds,lizards, snails, and beetles are eaten. In Israel, Marbled Polecats show a high seasonal variability in the diet. During summer, mole crickets (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) make up 66% of the diet, whereas in winter, 62% of the diet is rodents, such as voles (Microtus guentheri), House Mice (Mus musculus), Lesser Blind Mole Rats (Spalax leococon ehrenbergi), and Meriones sp. Marbled Polecats may take small poultry. Excess food may be cached for later use. The eyesight of Marbled Polecats is quite weak and they rely principally on a well-developed sense of smell. They have two kinds of killing bites: the first is the penetration of the prey’s body by the canines, and the second is crushing the prey without canine penetration. To kill small vertebrate prey, Marbled Polecats crush the thorax. If the prey struggles, they may pin the prey down with the forepaws and deliver headshakes or follow up by a bite to head or neck. On large prey, such as Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus), a Marbled Polecat bites the nape of the neck and eventually severs the spinal column at the base of the skull. With rats, it bites the throat. Fleeing prey are bitten dorsally, but defending prey are bitten on the head or neck.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes active during the day. Den/rest sites are in burrows of large ground squirrels or other rodents, or they dig their own dens. Marbled Polecats in Central Asia live in tunnel systems dug by the Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opinus). In Baluchistan, they live in burrows dug by the rodents or they may use underground irrigation tunnels. Sleeping chambers are 60-100 cm from the den entrance. In winter, they line the den with grass. When a Marbled Polecat digs, it presses its chin and hindpaws firmly to the ground and removes earth with its forelegs. Obstacles such as roots are pulled out with the teeth.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Marbled Polecats are good climbers, but feed mainly on the ground. Nightly movements may be up to 1 km. They are solitary except during the breeding season. In Israel, home ranges were 0-5- 0-6 km?; there were some overlaps of ranges and some encounters between individuals, but each animal foraged and rested alone.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from March to early June. Pregnant females have been observed in January, February, and May. In Israel, it is estimated that births occur from early February to early March. In Kazakhstan and Central Asia, Marbled Polecats give birth in February or March. Delayed implantation ofthe fertilized eggs into the uterus occurs and the total gestation length is from 243 to 327 days. Littersize is fourto eight. Only the mother cares for the young, which are reared in a nest of grass and leaves within a burrow. The eyes do not open until 40 days, but the young begin eating solid food at 30 days. Weaning occurs at 50-54 days and dispersal occurs at 61-68 days. Females attain adult size and sexual maturity at three months; males reach adult size at five months and sexual maturity at one year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. The subspecies Vp. peregusna is classified as Vulnerable. The major threat to this speciesis the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides and population declines in key prey species may also be threats. Small numbers of Marbled Polecats are harvested for fur in Pakistan and Lebanon.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ben-David (1998), Ben-David et al. (1991), Gorsuch &amp; Lariviére (2005), Qumsiyeh (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA42FFADCAF63F3EF9CFFA0D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26.text	038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Ictonyx striatus Perry 1810	<div><p>25.</p> <p>Zorilla</p> <p>Ictonyx striatus</p> <p>French: Zorille commune / German: Zorilla / Spanish: Hurén estriado</p> <p>Other common names: Striped Polecat</p> <p>Taxonomy. Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810,</p> <p>South Africa.</p> <p>As many as twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Sub-Saharan Africa from Mauritania and Senegal in the W to Sudan, Ethiopia and Djibouti in the E and S to South Africa. Absent from W &amp; C African rainforests.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-38 cm (males), 28-34 cm (females), tail 16.5-28 cm (males), 17- 5—28 cm (females); weight 0-80.1- 20 kg (males), 0-42. 0-75 kg (females), adult males are 50% heavier than females. The Zorilla has a black pelage with four white dorsal stripes that unite on the top of the neck. There are three white patches on the head. The undersides and limbs are black, and the tail is a mixture of black and white hairs. The soles of the feet are naked; there are claws on all the feet, but they are longer and straighter on the forefeet. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is heavily built, the rostrum is short and blunt, and the sagittal crest is poorly defined or absent. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3.M1/2=54,</p> <p>Habitat. Zorillas are found in a wide variety of habitats, including mountains, sand plains, forest, swamps,riverine woodlands, floodplains, grasslands, coastal hummocks, and town gardens.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly insects and small rodents, but birds, eggs, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates are also eaten. In South Africa, the percentage occurrence of food items in 21 stomachs was 62% insects, 38% mammals, 10% birds, 10% arachnids, 5% frogs, and 5% myriapods. In the Cape Province, stomachs contained birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects (Coleoptera, Coleoptera larvae, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera). One stomach from Kalahari National Park, South Africa, contained mostly reptile remains. In Botswana, twelve stomachs contained insects, reptiles, and small mammals. Most prey are detected by sight or smell, and captured after stalking or short chases. Larger mammals, such as ground squirrels (Xerus) and spring hares, are followed to their burrows and killed. Zorillas often hunt for invertebrates in loose soil, plant debris, and at the base of grass tufts. Typically, a Zorilla pushesits nose into loose soil and sniffs audibly. When food is detected,it is excavated with the forefeet. Slow prey are bitten directly, whereas faster-moving prey, such as moths, mantids, or beetles, may either be bitten or pinned to the ground with a forefoot and eaten head first. All parts of insects are eaten. Rats (Rattus) are located mainly by sight. On occasion, rats are stalked and quickly captured or are chased. They are captured either by direct biting or by being pinned to the ground with the forefeet and then bitten. Mostkilling bites are directed at the back of the neck, head, or chest. Rats larger than 140 g usually require more bites and pinning with the forefeet. Occasionally, Zorillas roll while biting. Large rats are eaten by biting at the flesh and holding the skin with the forefeet. Birds presented to captive Zorillas are quickly and easily killed by a bite at the head, and then eaten head first. Zorillas will consume young birds completely, but they leave most ofthe feathers, feet, and tibia of mature birds. The contents of broken eggs are readily consumed, but captive Zorillas experience initial difficulty with unbroken eggs. Eventually, they learn to open them by biting or rolling the egg against a hard object such as a rock. Once cracked, the egg is easily opened and consumed. Zorillas will kill snakes and can attack large cobras. Snakes are approached cautiously and bitten on the back several times, after which the Zorilla retreats rapidly. Each bite is directed to the posterior half of the snake and is accompanied by vigorous shaking. After four or five such attacks, the Zorilla pins the snake to the ground with the forefeet, and repeatedly bites 10-15 cm from the head. Some of the bites involve vigorous shaking. Most snakes are eaten head first, but occasionally the tail or even flanks may be consumed first. Lizards are captured following short chases, pinned to the ground with the forefeet, and killed by a bite at the head. Lizards are entirely consumed and eaten head first. Amphibians are pinned to the ground with the forefeet and killed by biting the head and neck region; all parts of amphibians are eaten.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Nocturnal. Rest sites are in holes, crevices, hollow logs, or under buildings. Zorillas can dig their own burrows, but often use those dug by other animals.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Zorillas generally are solitary, but pairs may be seen. Larger groups are rare, and usually comprise a female and her young. Adult males and females are together only during mating, and adult males are intolerant of other males.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in the spring. The young are born in late spring or summer, after a short gestation of 36 days. Littersize is two to three. Females have one litter per year, but may breed again if the first litter is lost early. The young are born blind and hairless; color patterns appear after one week. The eyes open after 40 days and the young start to eat solid food at c. 33 days, when their canine teeth erupt; they can kill mice at 60 days. Adultsize is reached at 20 weeks.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Zorillas are considered common throughout their range. They are not protected outside of national parks, where the most common threat is free-roaming domestic dogs.</p> <p>Bibliography. Lariviere (2002a), Rowe-Rowe (1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers &amp; Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA42FFACCFE430B7F901FE26	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398.text	038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Poecilogale albinucha Thomas 1883	<div><p>26.</p> <p>African Striped Weasel</p> <p>Poecilogale albinucha</p> <p>French: Zorille a nugue blanche / German: Weil3nackenwiesel / Spanish: Huron de nuca blanca</p> <p>Taxonomy. Zorrilla albinucha Gray, 1865,</p> <p>South Africa.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. C &amp; S Africa from Angola, PR Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, and Kenya to Eastern Cape</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 27-33 cm (males), 24-32 cm (females), tail 13.8-20 cm (males), 14-15.8 cm (females); weight 283-380 g (males), 210-290 g (females), adult males are 35-50% heavier than females. The African Striped Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is black with contrasting dorsal white stripes; the white fur first divides into two lines, then into four distinct white to yellowish lines above the shoulders. The top of the head is white. The tail is long, brushy, and white. The feet are small, with sharp claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow, and the rostrum is short and broad. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 2/2, M 1/1 =28.</p> <p>Habitat. African Striped Weasels are found in forests, savannahs, grasslands, pine plantations, and cultivated land. They can be found up to 2200 m, but are more common below 1500 m. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, questionnaire surveys revealed that 75% of sightings occurred in grasslands, 19% in young pine plantations, and 6% in cultivated land.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet mainly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents, but also includes reptiles, insects, and birds’ eggs. Out of twelve stomachs obtained in KwaZulu-Natal, six contained small mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Rhabdomys pumailio, and Mus minutoides). African Striped Weasels hunt by scent, with vision being used only in the last 50 cm. Their shape enables them to hunt inside the burrows of rodents. When prey is sighted, the weasel stops and then lunges at the prey; short chases may occur. In captivity, all prey were killed within seven minutes. Prey are seized by the back of the neck. African Striped Weasels do not shake the prey when attempting to kill; instead, they roll around and vigorously kick at the back of their victim, possibly dislocating the neck and immobilizing the prey. Although most killing bites are directed at the back of the head and the neck, females may use throat bites when killing large prey. In captivity, African Striped Weasels were unsuccessful in killing rats (Rattus) that were more than 108% the mass of the weasel. One weasel can consume 3-4 mice in a night, but surplus killing may occur. Prey may be cached for future consumption. Small mammals are eaten head first and are usually entirely consumed. Occasionally, the prey’s stomach and its contents are not eaten. The head,tail, legs, and dorsal skin of large rodents are typically not consumed.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mostly nocturnal, but activity may occur during the day. Rest sites are in holes, hollow logs, or within rock crevices. African Striped Weasels are powerful diggers and may dig their own dens.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. African Striped Weasels are mostly solitary, but pairs or small groups are observed (typically a female with young). Females tolerate the proximity of males only during the mating season.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in spring or summer. Females give birth to a litter of two or three, after a gestation of 30 days. The young are born in a burrow and weigh around 4 g at birth. The eyes open after seven weeks and the canines erupt at 35 days. The young are fully mobile and weaned after eleven weeks; they start killing prey at 13 weeks. Adult size is reached at 20 weeks, and sexual maturity is attained after eight months. Females rear their young without the assistance of males.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The African Striped Weasel is considered uncommon. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ansell (1960a), Lariviére (2001c), Rowe-Rowe (1972, 1978a, 1978b, 1978c), Smithers &amp; Chimimba (2005), Stuart (1981), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA43FFACCFA53ECEF81BF398	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC.text	038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pteronura brasiliensis Zimmermann 1780	<div><p>27.</p> <p>Giant Otter</p> <p>Pteronura brasiliensis</p> <p>French: Loutre géante / German: Riesenotter / Spanish: Nutria gigante</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela brasiliensis Gmelin, 1788,</p> <p>Brazil.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Amazon and Orinoco basins from Venezuela to Paraguay and S Brazil. Formerly also Argentina and Uruguay, but now may be extinct there.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 100-130 cm (males), 100-120 cm (females), tail 45-65 cm; weight 26-32 kg (males), 22-26 kg (females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The Giant Otter is the largest South American otter. It has a broad and flattened head and large eyes. The pelage is reddish to dark brown or almost black. There are large and distinctive white to yellow markings on the upper chest, neck, throat, and lips that contrast sharply with the darker body; these patches may unite to form a large “bib”. The rhinarium is fully haired. Thetail is large and flattened dorsoventrally. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is massive and flat.</p> <p>Habitat. Giant Otters are found in slow-moving rivers and creeks within forests, swamps, and marshes. They also occur in lakes, reservoirs, and agricultural canals. Although Giant Otters may inhabit dark or murky water, they prefer clear water and waterways with gently sloping banks and good cover.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Primarily fish eaters; adults consume an estimated 3 kg offish daily. The main fish species eaten are from the suborder Characoidei and are 10-60 cm in length. Other prey items are rare, but may include crabs, small mammals, amphibians, birds, and molluscs. There are records of Giant Otters eating large prey such as anacondas and other snakes, black caimans, and turtles. On the Jauaperi River in the central Brazilian Amazon, remains of fish were found in all spraints. The main fish groups were Perciformes (Cichlidae, 97-3%), Characiformes (86-5%) and Siluriformes (5-4%). The Characiformes were represented mainly by Erythrinidae (Hoplias sp. 90-6%), followed by Serrasalmidae (28%). The Anostomidae occurred with a frequency of 18:7%. On the Aquidauana River, the Characiformes were the most frequent fish group, represented in 100% of all samples, followed by Siluriformes (66-6%) and Perciformes (33:3%). Prey is caught with the mouth and held in the forepaws while being consumed. Small fish may be eaten in the water, but larger prey are taken to shore.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Diurnal. Giant Otters frequently go ashore to groom, play or defecate. Rest sites are in burrows, under root systems, or under fallen trees. At certain points along a stream, areas of about 50 m * are cleared and used for resting and grooming. Dens may consist of one or more short tunnels that lead to a chamber about 1-2- 1-8 m wide. Nine vocalizations have been distinguished including screams of excitement and coos, given upon close intra-specific contact.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Giant Otters are excellent swimmers and seem clumsy on land; however, they are capable of moving considerable distances between waterways. Daily travel may reach 17 km. During the dry season, when the young are being reared, activity is generally restricted to one portion of a waterway. In the wet season, movements are far more extensive. Giant Otters live in family groups that consist of a mated adult pair, one or more subadults, and one or more young of the year. These groups may reach 20 individuals, but are usually four to eight. Solitary animals also occur as transients. Home ranges are 12-32 linear km of creeks or rivers, or 20 km? of lakes or reservoirs. The core area of the home range is defended actively by family members; this core area encompasses 2-10 km of creek or 5 km ” of lake. Both sexes regularly patrol and mark their territory; groups tend to avoid each other and fighting appears to be rare.</p> <p>Breeding. The young are apparently born at the start of the dry season, from August to early October, although births may also occur from December to April. Gestation is 65-70 days, although evidence of delayed implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus has been observed in captivity. Litter size is up to five, usually one to three. Neonates weigh c. 200 g and measure c. 33 cm. They are able to eat solid food by three to four months and weaning occurs after nine months. The young remain with the parents until the birth of the next litter and probably for some time afterward. Adult size is reached after ten months and sexual maturity is attained at about two years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCN Red List. The Giant Otter is protected throughoutits distribution.The current total wild population is estimated at between 1000 and 5000 individuals. Major threats are habitat degradation, water pollution, and the ever-increasing encroachment of humans on their habitats, which may lead to a potential future reduction in population size of around 50% over the next 20 years. Other threats for this species are the continued illegal killing for their skins or meat, captures for the zoo trade, or robbing of dens for cubs to be sold as pets. There are also conflicts with fishermen as otters are perceived to reduce available fish stock, although studies have shown little overlap in otter prey species and those of commercial interest. Canine diseases that are transferred through domestic livestock, such as parvovirus and distemper, are also a threat.</p> <p>Bibliography. Autuori &amp; Deutsch (1977), Brecht-Munn &amp; Munn (1988), Carter &amp; Rosas (1997), Chebez (2008), Corredor &amp; Tigreros (2006), Defler (1986b), Duplaix (1980), IUCN (2008), Laidler &amp; Laidler (1983), Parera (1992), Rosas et al. (1999), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA46FFA9CAE93DF2F7AEFDBC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.text	038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lontra canadensis (Schreber 1777)	<div><p>28.</p> <p>North American River Otter</p> <p>Lontra canadensis</p> <p>French: Loutre du Canada / German: Nordamerikanischer Fischotter / Spanish: Nutria neértica</p> <p>Other common names: River Otter</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra canadensis Schreber, 1776,</p> <p>Eastern Canada.</p> <p>Seven subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>L. c. canadensis Schreber, 1776 — E Canada (Maritime Provinces, Ontario &amp; Quebec), NE USA (Maine through New York) and Great Lakes of USA (Michigan and Wisconsin).</p> <p>L. c. kodiacensis Goldman, 1935 — Alaska (Kodiak and Shuyak Is).</p> <p>L. c. lataxina Cuvier, 1823 — E &amp; SE USA.</p> <p>L. c. mira Goldman, 1935 — S Alaska (Prince of Wales I), SW Canada (Vancouver I).</p> <p>L. c. pacifica Rhoads, 1898 — W USA and W Canada.</p> <p>L. c. periclyzomae Elliot, 1905 — W Canada (Queen Charlotte Is).</p> <p>L. c. sonora Rhoads, 1898 — SW USA (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico &amp; Utah).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 70-73 cm (males), 58: 3-71.3 cm (females), tail 42-47 cm (males), 31.7-40 cm (females); weight 7.7-9.4 kg (males), 7.3-8.4 kg (females), adult males are approximately 5% larger than females. The North American River Otter has an elongated body, short limbs, and a tail that is flattened dorso-ventrally. The pelage is short and very dense, varying in color from brown to black, with a grayish upper chest, throat, and chin. The rhinarium is bare and there are long vibrissae on each side of the face. All four feet are fully webbed and equipped with small claws. The skull is flat, with a broad rostrum and large braincase. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P4/3.M 1/2 =36.</p> <p>Habitat. North American River Otters are found along streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and in saltwater marshes. Generally, they prefer waterways with well-vegetated shorelines, and avoid areas with no shoreline vegetation. They inhabit the murky waters of southern alluvial valleys as well as the crystal-clear waters of rocky mountain streams. In many areas, they occur in close association with American Beavers; Beaver ponds provide prey and dens/rest sites.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly fish, but also includes amphibians, crustaceans (especially crayfish), rodents, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and fruits. In many areas, the abundance and availability offish is the primary determinant of North American River Otter abundance. Typically, fish are consumed in inverse proportion to their swimming abilities: slow-moving species are captured and eaten more often. In coastal areas, the fish eaten are those that are abundant, intermediate in size, and found close to shore. North American River Otters hunt by sight and by touch. They inspect logjams, pools of deeper water in shallow streams, areas below waterfalls, natural eddies, or any other areas likely to hold fish and other prey. Upon detection, prey are pursued until captured. In shallow or murky water, North American River Otters hunt and detect prey with their vibrissae or by feeling with their forefeet. They can remain underwater for up to four minutes, and can swim at speeds of 11 km /h. They may hunt in small family groups, herding fish to shore or to each other to facilitate capture.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, with some crepuscular activity; diurnal activity increases during colder months. Active year round, even when water freezes in winter. Rest sites are in dry bank dens, Beaver lodges, or other natural cavities accessible from underwater.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. North American River Otters are highly mobile, aquatic animals and can travel more than 40 km in a single day. Daily movements average 4-5 km for males and 2-3 km for females. They typically travel in water and are able to swim long distances under ice during the winter. North American River Otters may travel long distances over land from one watershed to another. When traveling on land, they often slide instead of bounding, especially if snow is present or when going downhill on slippery ground. When sliding, they push forward with their back legs, while the front feet are tucked under the belly. They will also play on steep banks next to water, repeatedly climbing up the bank and sliding back down into the water. North American River Otters have a complex social system, which varies across their range. They often occur in groups of up to 15 individuals; the largest groups are found along coastal shorelines. These groups mainly consist of a female with young. In coastal areas, groups consist either of adult females with young, or male groups. The cohesiveness of male groups disappears during breeding, when each male attempts to find and mate with numerous females. Home ranges may reach 275 km ” for males and 135 km? for females. In south-eastern Minnesota, annual home ranges of males were 3-2 times greater than those of females, and annual core areas of males were 2-9 times greater than those of females; 69% of the individuals exhibited core-area overlap. In general, conspecifics were not excluded from home ranges or core areas and signs of cooperation were evident, suggesting that they were social rather than territorial. Population densities range from one per 4 km of water in Idaho to one per 1-25 km of coastal water in Alaska.</p> <p>Breeding. North American River Otters are polygynous. Mating occurs from December in the south to April in the north. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for eight months; embryonic development lasts 61-63 days. Births occur from February to April, usually in a bank den or an abandoned Beaver lodge. In south-eastern Minnesota, two females used man-made brush piles as maternal dens, four used small limestone caves, one used a cavity in the roots of a big-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) and one used a American Beaver bank den. Dens were located a mean of 316 m from the nearest body of water. Seven of eight females placed dens outside of their normal activity areas, and all females appeared to select den sites that were protected from flood events. Litter size is one to five. The young are born furred, blind, and toothless. The eyes open after 30-38 days, and weaning occurs after twelve weeks. Sexual maturity is reached after two years. Males do not provide parental care.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. North American River Otters are considered to be fairly common throughout their range. However, one subspecies, L. ¢. sonora, may be of concern in Mexico. One threat is water pollution, which not only reduces the availability of prey, but also affects reproduction due to bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. In coastal areas, oil spills are the most severe threats. Throughout their range, they are harvested for their fur, but this controlled harvest does not constitute a major threat when habitat conditions are suitable. Reintroductions have been successful in areas where North American River Otters were once common.</p> <p>Bibliography. Gorman, Erb, McMillan &amp; Martin (2006), Gorman, Erb, McMillan, Martin &amp; Homyack (2006), Green (1932), Hall (1981), Lariviere &amp; Walton (1998), LeBlanc et al. (2007), Melquist &amp; Hornocker (1983), Reid et al. (1994), Serfass (1995), Serfass &amp; Rymon (1985), Shannon (1989), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA46FFA8CFE13F3EFAECF921	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4.text	038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lontra felina Gray 1843	<div><p>29.</p> <p>Marine Otter</p> <p>Lontra felina</p> <p>French: Loutre chungungo / German: Stidamerikanischer Meerotter / Spanish: Chungungo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela felina Molina, 1782,</p> <p>Chile.</p> <p>The Marine Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Pacific coast from N Peru to S Chile, and extreme S of Argentine Patagonia.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 53.3-78.7 cm, tail 30-36.2 cm; weight 3.2-5.8 kg. The smallest of the South American otters. The pelage is dark brown through-out except for a grayish neck and throat. Large vibrissae occur on each upperlip. All the feet are fully webbed. The skull is small and flat, with a broad rostrum.</p> <p>Habitat. Marine Otters are found in marine environments, along rocky coasts that harbor a high diversity of prey. They spend most of their time within 150 m of shore, but occasionally may venture into freshwater tributaries flowing into the sea.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is primarily crustaceans, molluscs, and fish, but also includes birds, small mammals, and fruit. Along the Chilean coast, the diet consists of crabs (69-8%), fish (19:9%), shrimp (6:4%), and molluscs (3-9%). On the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile, spraints contained 25 species: 52% crustaceans, 40% fish, and 8% molluscs. Marine Otters showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability. Marine Otters fish by first swimming to a hunting area, where they then dive underwater for 6-64 seconds. Captured prey are consumed in the waterif they are small enough to be handled easily, or taken ashore if larger. Crabs are almost always taken ashore. Prey can be carried in the mouth, or carried on the belly while swimming dorsally. Unlike Sea Otters, Marine Otters do not use rocks as anvils to crack open bivalves or shellfish. At Isla Choros, northern Chile, Marine Otters spent more time foraging in a wave-protected site compared with a wave-exposed habitat. Successful dives reached 26-9% in the wave-exposed habitat and 38-2% in the wave-protected habitat. Foraging dives were 18% shorter in wave-exposed as compared with wave-protected habitat.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly diurnal. Marine Otters spend about 40% of their time hunting and 60% resting or grooming. They make extensive use of caves, rock crevices, and natural cavities for resting sites. Many areas used for resting at low tide are underwater during high tides.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Marine Otters are strong swimmers, but their daily movements occur within 150 m ofthe coast. Long coastal movements are not documented. Marine Otters are solitary and seldom hunt in groups; observed groups are likely to consist of a female with her young. Among adults, home ranges overlap. Six Marine Otters were radio-tracked in central Chile. Females exhibited intra-sexualterritoriality, but there was no territoriality between males or between sexes. Home ranges were less than 4134 m long and less than 110 m wide; range size did not differ between sexes. Marine Otters concentrated their activity in the littoral zone and spent 81% oftheir time on land, mostly resting. Core areas were associated with resting places and dens. Population density varies from 0-04-10 otters per km of coastline.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in December orJanuary. Gestation lasts 60-65 days and births take place in January, February, or March. Females give birth in rocky caves; these dens are spaces between boulders that remain above water even at high tide, and many have underwater entrances. Litter size is two to four. The young remain with their mother for up to ten months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCN Red List. It is estimated that fewer than 1000 Marine Otters remain, including a Peruvian population of 200-300. This species is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Major threats include human occupation of the coast, water pollution, and illegal killing for their pelts or by fisherman who blame Marine Otters for the reduction of local fish or shrimp populations.</p> <p>Bibliography. Castilla (1981), Eisenberg (1989), Lariviere (1998), Medina (1995), Medina, Boher et al. (2007), Medina, Rodriguez et al. (2004), Ostfeld et al. (1989), Sielfeld (1983), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA47FFA8CAB33B0EF993FBD4	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.text	038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lontra longicaudis Gray 1843	<div><p>30.</p> <p>Neotropical Otter</p> <p>Lontra longicaudis</p> <p>French: Loutre néotropicale / German: Siidamerikanischer Fischotter / Spanish: Nutria neotropical</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra longicaudis Olfers, 1818,</p> <p>Brazil.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>L. l. longicaudis Olfers, 1818 — Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, S Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.</p> <p>L. l. annectens Major, 1897 — Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.</p> <p>L. l. enudris Cuvier, 1823 — NE Brazil, the Guyanas, and Trinidad.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36-66 cm,tail 37-84 cm; weight 5-15 kg, adult males are 20-25% larger than females. The Neotropical Otter is heavily built, with a long body, short limbs, and fully webbed feet. The pelage is dark brown, with a gray neck and throat. The muzzle is broad, with a yellowish white tip and long vibrissae on each side. The skull is heavy, long, and flat.</p> <p>Habitat. Neotropical Otters are found in fast flowing, clear rivers and streams, in both deciduous and evergreen forests, at elevations up to 3000 m. They prefer waterways with clear water, abundant waterside vegetation, and high availability of potential den sites; they are rare or absent from sluggish, murky, lowland waters. In Northern Mexico, along a 30 km stretch ofriver, the habitat preferred by a Neotropical Otter included pools that averaged more than 0-8 m deep, more than 14- 6 m wide, with over 64% understory vegetation cover, and rock talus/vegetation cover within 4-8 m of the water's edge.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. In southern Brazil, spraint analysis revealed a diet comprising mainly fish (including Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, Pimelodidae, Auchenipteridae, and Erythrinidae), and also mammals and insects. In the coastal plain of Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, spraints contained fish (mainly Hoplias malabaricus and Geophagus brasiliensis) and crustaceans (mainly the river crab Trichodactylus fluviatilis). The presence of fruits, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the diet was occasional and opportunistic. On Ibera Lake, Argentina, 205 spraints contained mainly fish (Cichlidae, Characidae, Synbranchidae, Loricariidae, and Erythrinidae), but also crustaceans and molluscs. Seasonal variation was observed in the diet: in the summer, crustaceans and vertebrates (other than fish) increased. A higher percentage of benthic fish species was also observed in the summer, while pelagic and benthopelagic species increased in the winter. Such dietary changes may have resulted from the different habitat used in different seasons, from the lake coast in winter towards a more internal marshy area in summer. Foraging dives last 20-30 seconds. Small prey are eaten while in an upright position at the water’s surface; large prey are taken ashore.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly diurnal, with activity peaks in the middle or late afternoon. May become nocturnal in areas of high human activity. Rest sites are in natural cavities along riverbanks, in excavated burrows, or in dense grass. In Brazil, two large caves were also used as shelters and to raise young. Neotropical Otters mainly use rest sites located high on riverbanks, probably because they are less vulnerable to flooding. Sprainting sites are usually on solid, high and dry areas, in close proximity to deep water; these sites include logs, root systems, rocks, sand bars, and planks under bridges.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Neotropical Otters are graceful swimmers and divers, and are seldom seen out of the water. On land, they move with a humping gait, with the head and tail carried low. Neotropical Otters are solitary, but breeding pairs and females with young are seen occasionally. Population densities vary from 0-8 to 2-8 otters per km of shoreline.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities. Gestation lasts 56-86 days. Litter size may be up to five, but is typically two or three. Births occur in nests of grass and leaves located on the banks of streams, in hollow logs or trees, among root systems, or in cavities excavated by the female. The young are born blind but fully furred. Their eyes open after 44 days, and they start to venture outside the natal den when c. 52 days old. Aquatic activity starts at c. 74 days. Before they are old enough to follow the female, the young spend most of the day playing near the natal den. Females raise the young alone as males do not provide parental care.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN Red List. Because the Neotropical Otter is secretive and lives in remote areas, the status of populations is unknown in many regions. The major threat for this species is hunting for its pelt. Another threat is water pollution caused by mining and ranching. Neoptropical Otters are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to catch fish. Conservation goals should aim at reducing hunting pressure, protecting areas, and enacting stricter regulations to prevent water pollution.</p> <p>Bibliography. Arcila &amp; Ramirez (2004), Gallo (1991), Helder &amp; Ker De Andrade (1997), Kasper et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999b), Mondolfi (1970), Pardini &amp; Trajano (1999), Parera (1993), Passamani &amp; Camargo (1995), Quadros &amp; Monteiro-Filho (2001), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA47FFA7CFAB3887FCE6FC62	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218.text	038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lontra provocax Gray 1843	<div><p>31.</p> <p>Southern River Otter</p> <p>Lontra provocax</p> <p>French: Loutre du Chili / German: Patagonischer Fischotter / Spanish: Huillin</p> <p>Other common names: Huillin</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra provocax Thomas, 1908,</p> <p>Patagonia.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Argentina and Chile.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 57-61 cm, tail 35-40 cm; weight 5-10 kg, males are about 10% larger than females. This medium-sized otter is dark-brown with pale undersides and a grayish neck and throat. All four feet are fully webbed. The skull is flat, but strongly built. The dentition is broad and adapted for crushing.</p> <p>Habitat. Southern River Otters are found in lakes, rivers, and some coastal marshes. In Argentina, they are associated with dense mature forests that have thick undergrowth extending close to the shore of water bodies. In southern Chile, radio-tracked Southern River Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Temperate evergreen swamp forests and river and stream banks with a high density of riparian vegetation, woody debris and exposed roots, were found to be the preferred habitats; canalized rivers and streams lacking these characteristics were avoided.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mostly fish (under 10 cm in length) and crustaceans, but also includes molluscs and birds. The relative importance of each food type may vary seasonally or geographically. In central Chile, the diet comprises 75% fish and 63% crustaceans; the highest occurrence of fish occurs in the spring and summer. In the southern marine habitats of Chile, Southern River Otters feed mainly on fish. In Argentina, crustaceans largely dominate the diet (99%) and fish occur rarely (less than 2%). Differences in the proportion offish and crustaceans in the diet may reflect the differential availability of prey types in different habitats: fish productivity is low in freshwater lakes compared to the oceans, which may explain the high proportion of crustaceans in freshwater lakes.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal, with occasional activity during the day. Den/ rest sites are rock crevices, hollow trees or logs, earth banks, or under root systems; Southern River Otters may excavate their own dens. Dens occur from 0-7 to 50 m from the shoreline; most are within 3-8 m of the water’s edge. They often have multiple terrestrial but no underwater entrances. The density of dens along the southern coast of Chile was 2-8 per km of coastline. Latrines are common near den entrances or inside dens; they are 50-80 m from one another and 3-6 m from water.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Southern River Otters may move up to 5 km per night. They are mostly solitary; females with young and breeding pairs are the only social groups recorded. In the Queule River, southern Chile, the observed behavior of radio-tracked otters suggested intra-sexual territoriality; no home range overlap among males existed, while there was an average of 33% overlap of home ranges among females, and 87% between sexes. In core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11- 3 km and 0-9 km, respectively. The population density in Chile ranges from 0-25 to 0-73 individuals per km of coastline.</p> <p>Breeding. In central Chile, mating occurs in July and August, and young are born in September or October. Litter size averages one or two, but may reach up to four.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered in The IUCN Red List. The major threats to this species are the destruction ofits habitat and hunting, especially in Chile. The high price of otter skins in Chile, combined with low wages for unskilled workers, generates much uncontrolled and illegal harvest.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aued et al. (2003), Chéhébar (1986), Chéhébar et al. (1986), Lariviere (1999¢), Medina (1996), Medina et al. (2003), Sielfeld (1983), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA48FFA7CAF8384FFC74F218	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.text	038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Enhydra lutris (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>32.</p> <p>Sea Otter</p> <p>Enhydra lutris</p> <p>French: Loutre de mer / German: Meerotter / Spanish: Nutria marina</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela lutris Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Kamchatka, Russia.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>E. l. lutris Linnaeus, 1758 — NE Russia (Commander Is, Kamchatka, Kurile Is &amp; Sakhalin I).</p> <p>E. l. kenyoni Wilson, 1991 — Aleutian Is through Alaska and W Canada (Vancouver I) to W USA (Washington).</p> <p>E. l. nereis Merriam, 1904 — USA (California).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 100-120 cm, tail 25-37 cm; weight 21-45 kg (males), 14-33 kg (females). The Sea Otter is one of the largest species within the Mustelidae. Sea Otters have long bodies and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown to dark brown, with a gray or creamy-colored head, throat, and chest. The underfur is very dense, averaging 100,000 hairs per cm®. The head is wide and blunt, with long and thick vibrissae on the upper lips. The ears are small and set low to the sides, and capable of closing when the otter dives. The tail is slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, but uniform in thickness from the base to tip. All four feet are webbed and clawed. There is one pair of mammae. A fold of skin in the armpits enables the Sea Otter to transport prey at sea while foraging. The Sea Otter lacks anal glands. The skull is flat, broad and strong. Dental formula: 1 3/2, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 = 32. The molars are broad and flat, with rounded crowns. This is the only carnivore species with four (instead ofsix) lowerincisors.</p> <p>Habitat. Sea Otters are found in coastal marine habitats from sheltered and sandy bays to rocky shorelines exposed to rough seas. Although marine mammals, they rarely venture more than one km from shore. Typically, they live and forage in waters at depths of up to 100 m, but the highest densities of Sea Otters occur in waters less than 40 m deep.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mostly marine invertebrates such as abalones, sea urchins, crabs, and molluscs. Other prey include squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, scallops, and, very occasionally, fish. In the northern Kodiak Archipelago, clams were the most frequently identified prey (57-67%, mostly Saxidomus giganteus); mussels (Mytilus sp.), crabs (primarily Telmessus sp.), and green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) contributed 25% to the diet. On the north side of the Alaska Peninsula, the dominant prey species in 50 spraints were mussels (Mytilus edulis), followed by three species of clams (Siliqua sp., Spisula polynyma, and Tellina lutea), sand dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and helmet crabs (Telmessus cheiragonus). In south-east Alaska, butter clams (S. giganteus) are the major prey items. Sea Otters on the outer coast of Washington feed heavily on bivalves (63%) and have a diverse diet consisting of several prey groups. In contrast, Sea Otters in the Strait ofJuan de Fuca have a restricted diet dominated by more than 60% red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), with only two other prey species comprising more than 10% of their diet. Sea Otters forage in both rocky and soft-sediment areas on or near the ocean floor. They have good underwater vision and most prey is captured by sight. Prey hiding under rocks or in crevices may also be captured by feeling with the forefeet. Underwater dives are sustained by lungs that are 2-3 times larger than those of similarsized terrestrial mammals. Most hunting dives last 50-90 seconds. In coastal Washington, the average dive time was 55 seconds and average surface time was 45 seconds, irrespective of dive success. At least 77% of all dives were successful in capturing prey. Prey capture success was significantly lower for subadults (63%) than adults (82%). Sea Otters break the exoskeleton of large or hard-shelled prey by hitting the prey item on a rock carried by the otter on its belly. Sea Otters face a tremendous thermoregulatory challenge because of their constant life at sea. When in water, buoyancy and insulation are provided by their fur and the air bubbles trapped within it. The integrity of their pelage is thus essential to thermoregulation. Their metabolic heat production is 2-3 times greater than that of similar-sized terrestrial mammals. To sustain such heat production requires that Sea Otters consume 20-33% of their body mass in food daily. Sea Otters can drink seawater, and their kidneys produce very concentrated urine to avoid unnecessary water loss.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Generally diurnal, with peaks in activity at dawn and dusk. Daytime foraging increases when females care for young. In Prince William Sound, Alaska, more time was spent foraging (30%) than on any other activity, and foraging bouts were longer than all other activities. Sea Otters rest by floating belly-up in the water with their feet out of the water. They sometimes rest on rocks near the water and often spend the night in a kelp bed, lying under strands of kelp to avoid drifting while sleeping. Ten vocalizations have been described for Sea Otters including screams of distress (heard especially when mothers and young are separated) and coos (heard mostly when individuals are content or in familiar company).</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Sea Otters can spend their entire life at sea, and their movements on land are awkward. In the water, they are graceful and can move at speeds of 1- 1-5 km /h at the surface and up to 9 km /h underwater. Annual total movements of both sexes frequently cover 50-100 km. Sea Otters are basically solitary, but they sometimes rest in concentrations of up to 2000 individuals, and groups may occur at feeding areas. They aggregate by sex and age, with males and females occupying separate sections of coastline. During the breeding season, some males move into the areas occupied by females and establish territories. Male territories are usually about 20-50 ha; female home ranges may be twice as large. These territories typically are located in prime feeding or resting areas, locations that are attractive to breeding females. The boundaries are vigorously patrolled and intruding males are repulsed, but serious fighting is rare. The ownerofa territory seeks to mate with any female that enters, though sometimes a pair bond is formed for a few days or weeks.</p> <p>Breeding. Sea Otters are polygynous: males may mate with more than one female during the season. Mating and births occur throughout the year, but parturition peaks are in May and June in the Aleutians and from January to March off the coast of California. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed, and total gestation lasts from 4-12 months. Births occur in water. Litter size is one, very rarely two. At birth, neonates weigh 1.4-2.3 kg. The female swims on her back and nurses with the young on her chest. Young Sea Otters may take some solid food shortly after birth, but may nurse until they are almost adult size. The period of dependency on the mother is thought to be about five to eight months. Offspring start diving after two months. Sexual maturity is reached at four years of age. Most females do not have young every year, although some females are capable of annual reproduction. Males may begin mating at five orsix years, but usually do not become active breeders until several more years have passed.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I and II. Classified as Endangered in The IUCN Red List. Sea Otters are hunted for their fur, which has led to a large reduction in local populations and their distribution. Extirpated in Japan (coastal Hokkaido) and Mexico (Baja California), but now translocations have now reestablised Sea Otters in south-east Alaska, south-west Canada (Vancouver I), and north-west USA (Washington and Oregon). They are legally harvested in Alaska, with the annual harvest slightly exceeding 1000 animals. Sea Otters are also persecuted as perceived competitors for shellfish. In the last few decades, massive oil spills, such as that of the Exxon Valdez in 1989, have also decimated Sea Otter populations.</p> <p>Bibliography. Bodkin (2003), Doroff &amp; DeGange (1994), Estes (1980), Estes &amp; Palmisano (1974), Gentry &amp; Peterson (1967), Green &amp; Brueggeman (1991), Hall &amp; Schaller (1964), Hattori et al. (2005), IUCN (2008), Kenyon (1969), Pearson &amp; Davis (2005), Pearson et al. (2006), Sandegren et al. (1973), Shimek &amp; Monk (1977), Wilson et al. (1991), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA48FFA6CFF03DA4FD9DF9CC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493.text	038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hydrictis maculicollis (Lichtenstein 1835)	<div><p>33.</p> <p>Spotted-necked Otter</p> <p>Hydrictis maculicollis</p> <p>French: Loutre a cou tacheté / German: Fleckenhals-Otter / Spanish: Nutria moteada</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein, 1835,</p> <p>Cape Province, South Africa.</p> <p>The Spotted-necked Otter was previously included in the genus Lutra by some authors, but recent molecular studies have shown that its inclusion in Lutra would make this genus paraphyletic. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Sub-Saharan Africa from Guinea Bissau in the W to SW Ethiopia, E Kenya, and Tanzania in the E, and S to N Namibia, Botswana, and NW Zimbabwe; also Malawi, Mozambique, and E South Africa.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 71-76 cm (males), 57-60.5 cm (females), tail 38.5-44 cm (males), 41-44 cm (females); weight 5.7-6 kg (males), 3.8-4.7 kg (females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The Spotted-necked Otter has a long body, short limbs, and a long tail. The pelage varies from reddish to dark brown. There are creamy-white to white mottled markings on the upper chest and throat. All the feet are fully webbed and there are claws on all the digits. The skull is long and narrow and lightly built, but with a well-developed sagittal crest. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.</p> <p>Habitat. Spotted-necked Otters are found in freshwater rivers, lakes, and swamps with large areas of open water; they are absent from coastal or estuarine areas. They seldom venture more than 10 m away from water and prefer shallow, freshwater areas, where there is continuity of lakeside vegetation, low pollution, and no crocodiles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Spotted-necked Otters were most often located in rivers (40% of 706 locations) and near dams (45%), with only occasional use of swamps (3%) and oxbow lakes (2%).</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includesfish (Barbus, Clarias, Haplochromis, Micropterus salmoides, Salmo trutta, and Tilapia), crabs (Potomonautes), and frogs (mostly Xenopus laevis and Rana). Insects and birds are also occasionally eaten. Crabs are the major dietary item during spring, summer, and autumn, whereas fish dominate in winter. Most fish consumed are less than 20 cm in length. In the fish-rich waters of east and central Africa, the diet consists almost entirely of fish, whereas in the fish-poor waters of South Africa, crabs and frogs are consumed in addition to fish. On Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 61% of spraints collected contained 46% Haplochromis, 14% Tilapia, catfish (Bagrus or Clarias), and 1% crab (Potamon niloticus). Direct observations of feeding Spottednecked Otters also revealed a diet dominated by Haplochromis. On Lake Muhazi, Rwanda, 154 spraints contained 80% fish, 10% insects, 3% molluscs, 2% birds and frogs. In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet is mostly fish (47%), crabs (38%), and frogs (8%). In KwaZulu-Natal, the frequency of occurrence of food items in 516 spraints was 64% fish, 43% crabs, 43% amphibians, and 18% insects. In contrast, 228 spraints collected near a troutriver contained 39% crabs, 38% fish, 20% frogs, 2% insects (mostly dragonfly larvae, Odonata), and unidentified birds. In a non-trout area, 66 spraints contained 30% crabs, 27% frogs, 25% fish, 10% birds (mostly Anatidae and little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis), and 5% insects. In three stomachs from the Cape Province, South Africa, one contained crabs, one contained frogs and fish, and one contained frogs,fish, a beetle (Coleoptera), and a caterpillar. Spotted-necked Otters generally fish alone and almost all fishing is done within 10 m from the shore. When fishing in groups, cooperation among individuals may help facilitate prey capture by herding fish toward each other. Fishing in groups probably occurs when females are training their young. Fish are captured during short dives of less than 20 seconds. Once underwater, a Spotted-necked Otter scans for prey, turning its head from side to side. Prey are detected visually and pursued until captured. Crabs, fish, and frogs are captured with the mouth; the forefeet are not used in prey capture. Fish smaller than 10 cm are consumed in the water, but larger fish are taken to shore for consumption. Fishing forays typically last 10-20 minutes, but may last up to 3 h.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mostly diurnal, with activity peaks during early morning and late afternoon. In KwaZulu-Natal, Spotted-necked Otters were most active from 06:00-09:00 h and 15:00-21:00 h. Nocturnal activity usually only occurs during periods of full moon. Rest sites are in rock cavities, bank dens, holes in root systems, or dense vegetation. Spotted-necked Otters can dig their own burrows. In KwaZulu-Natal, resting sites were among trees and shrub roots (29%), reeds (21%), small islands near dams (23%), tall grass (14%), swamps (11%), and sheltered places among rocks (2%). A 4-2-km section of river contained ten resting sites, with a mean distance of 467 m between dens.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Spotted-necked Otters travel mostly in water, swimming underwater and surfacing briefly to breathe. Swimming speed reaches 3—4 km /h. Spotted-necked Otters may be found in small family groups of up to five individuals, although groups of up to 20 animals have been reported. Group size varies according to locality. Of 14 sightings in KwaZulu-Natal, six were singles, three were pairs, three were trios, one was of four, and one offive. In Rwanda, 75% of observations were ofsolitary Spotted-necked Otters; pairs or trios occurred on occasion and usually consisted of a female with young. In Rwanda, maximum group size was eleven and most animals foraged alone. In Lake Victoria, Tanzania, Spotted-necked Otters were most often seen in groups of three and solitary animals were observed on only five occasions; these groups often travelled together, but fed individually. The home ranges of males are larger than those of females. In KwaZulu-Natal, the mean home rangesize for three males was 16- 2 km?, and 5-8 km * for three females. Spotted-necked Otters appeared to be non-territorial as there was large intra- and inter-sexual overlap of home ranges. Population density on Lake Muhazi (3-4 km? in size), Rwanda, was two otters per km of shoreline. In KwaZulu-Natal, density was 0-4-0-6 otters per km of shoreline. Near Kageye, Tanzania, 9-10 otters occupied a 10-km section of the coast of Lake Victoria. In KwaZulu-Natal, the density of otters was estimated at one otter per 6-11 km of river and at one otter per 1-6— 2-4 km of river.</p> <p>Breeding. In Tanzania, mating occurs in July and the young are born in September, after a gestation of c. 60 days. In Zambia, three two-week-old cubs from one litter were captured in December. Delayed implantation probably does not occur. Litter size is one to three. Neonates are blind and helpless. The young remain with the mother for up to one year. Males do not provide parental care.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Although this is a widespread species, there are local population declines occurring. Spotted-necked Otters are sensitive to habitat alterations and pollution, and because they consume fish, they are susceptible to bioaccumulation of pesticides and other toxic chemical compounds. Throughout Africa, otters are killed for their skins and meat or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income. During the last few years, their habitats have been drastically changed or lost following bush clearance, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands, water extraction, or denudation ofriparian vegetation.</p> <p>Bibliography. Angelici et al. (2005), Koepfli &amp; Wayne (1998), Kruuk &amp; Goudswaard (1990), Lariviere (2002b), Lejeune (1989), Mortimer (1963), Perrin &amp; Carugati (2000), Perrin &amp; D’Inzillo (2000), Procter (1963), Roberts (1951), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1995), Rowe-Rowe &amp; Somers (1998), Skinner &amp; Smithers (1990), Smithers &amp; Chimimba (2005), Somers &amp; Purves (1996), Stuart (1985), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA49FFA6CAA23B54F692F493	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00.text	038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lutra lutra (Linnaeus 1758)	<div><p>34.</p> <p>Eurasian Otter</p> <p>Lutra lutra</p> <p>French: Loutre d'Europe / German: Eurasischer Fischotter / Spanish: Nutria paleartica</p> <p>Other common names: European Otter</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela lutra Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>The Japanese Otter (L. nippon) is considered by some authors to be a valid species, based on recent morphological and molecular analyses. However, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status; it is here considered a subspecies of L. lutra. Up to twenty-eight subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Wide distribution in the Palearctic: from Europe to Russian Far East, North and South Korea, and Japan; also N Africa, Middle East, C Asia, Sub-Himalayan zone, S India, Sri Lanka, C, E &amp; S China, Taiwan, Indochina, and Sumatra.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 33-50 cm; weight 5-14 kg, adult males are typically 50% larger than females. The Eurasian Otter has a long body and a conical tail. The short, dense pelage is brown to almost black throughout, with slightly paler undersides. The legs are short; the feet are fully webbed and have well-developed claws. There are two to three pairs of mammae. The cranium is large and flat. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.</p> <p>Habitat. Eurasian Otters are found along lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, and in marshes, swamps, and coastal and estuarine wetlands, from sea level up to 4120 m. They avoid areas of deep water.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly fish, frogs, and aquatic invertebrates (including crustaceans and crabs). Birds and small mammals (such as rodents and lagomorphs) may be consumed on occasion. In general, the mean proportion offish declines from 94% on seashores, to 71% on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% on rivers and streams. On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish is an essential food item. In Northern Ireland, over 50% of spraints were composed of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), salmonids and cyprinids, with Sticklebacks constituting the most frequently occurring prey category. The frequency of occurrence of eels (Anguilla anguilla) was found to be consistently higher in spraints collected from smaller streams. In eastern Poland,fish constitutes 51% of the food biomass consumed in spring-summer and 40% in autumnwinter, with perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), and roach (Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria) make up 34% of the food biomass in spring-summer and 58% in autumn-winter. The cold season diet depends on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, Eurasian Otters feed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of the river increases, and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), Eurasian Otters shift to catching predominantly fish (up to 76%). In southern Poland, the main component of the diet is fish (47-9%, including brown trout Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss). Other important food items are 21-4% frogs (R. temporaria) and 30% birds, small mammals, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, and plant debris. In southern Italy, spraint analysis revealed that fish represented the dominant food (57-3% mean volume), followed by amphibians (18:9%) and crayfish (15-6%). Seasonal variations in fish consumption were related to changes in fish activity and to environmental conditions; the importance of fish decreased in winter, when flooding increased water speeds and turbidity, and thus reduced the hunting efficiency of the otters. Hibernating amphibians represented a primary alternative resource. Insects and reptiles were eaten more frequently in summer, while birds predominated during their breeding season. In Hungary, the primary food is fish (89-8% for riverine and 87-5% for backwater habitats); Eurasian Otters living in riverine habitats, compared to backwaters, consume more birds (3-9% and 0-7%, respectively), less mammals (0-5% and 0-9%, respectively), less reptiles and amphibians (5-6% and 10-2%, respectively) and less invertebrates (0-1% and 0-6%, respectively); most fish eaten are small-sized (below 100 g), and the most frequently taken species is Carassius sp. In Iran, the major food items are 38-1% chub (Alburnoides bipunctatus) and 34-8% carp (Cyprinus carpio). Prey are captured with the mouth, but the forepaws are used to handle the prey for consumption.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but can also be active during the day. Den/restsites are in burrows, among root systems, log jams, or in rock crevices, in close proximity to water.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Eurasian Otters are excellent swimmers and divers. They are usually found no more than a few hundred meters from water, but they may travel several kilometers overland between wetlands. They swim using movements of the hindlegs and tail; usually dives last one or two minutes,five at the most. When traveling on the ground, snow, or ice they may use a combination of running and sliding. Males typically are solitary, whereas females may occur in groups, either with their own young or with unrelated, reproductive females and their young. The straight-line length of a home range may reach an average of 15 km for males and 7 km for females. Males and femalestypically defend their range against members of the same sex, but the home ranges of males may overlap those of several females. Population densities may be one otter per 2-3 km of lakeshore or 5 km ofriver.</p> <p>Breeding. Females are polyestrous, with the cycle lasting four to six weeks; estrus lasts about two weeks. Mating typically occurs in late winter or early spring. The gestation period is 60-63 days and births peak in April or May. The main entrance of bank burrows may open underwater and then slope upward into the bank to a nest chamber that is above the high-water level. Litter size is one to five, usually two to three. The young are born blind and weigh about 130 g at birth. They open their eyes after one month and emerge from the den and begin to swim at two months. They nurse for three to four months and separate from the mother at about one year. Sexual maturity is attained after two or three years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Otter, once common, has no recent confirmed sightings and may be extinct. Eurasian Otters are vulnerable to water pollution because their bodies accumulate contaminants and heavy metals, which affect reproduction. They also are killed accidentally on roads and deliberately for their fur.</p> <p>Bibliography. Chruszcz et al. (2007), Conroy et al. (1998), Francis (2008), Imaizumi &amp; Yoshiyuki (1989), Kruuk &amp; Conroy (1991), Kruuk et al. (1989), Lanszki &amp; Sallai (2006), Lanszki &amp; Szeles (2006), Philcox et al. (1999), Preston et al. (2006), Prigioni et al. (2006), Rasooli et al. (2007), Stroganov (1969), Suzuki et al. (1996), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA49FFA5CFA73028F5B9FE00	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF.text	038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lutra sumatrana Brisson 1762	<div><p>35.</p> <p>Hairy-nosed Otter</p> <p>Lutra sumatrana</p> <p>French: Loutre de Sumatra / German: Haarnasen-Otter / Spanish: Nutria indonesia</p> <p>Taxonomy. Barangia sumatrana Gray, 1865,</p> <p>Sumatra.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Mainland SE Asia in Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, and PeninsularMalaysia; also Borneo and Sumatra.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 50-82 cm, tail 37.5-50 cm; weight 3.5-6 kg, adult males are larger than females. The Hairy-nosed Otter is small, with a dark brown pelage and paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of the face, chin, and throat are white. The rhinarium is covered with hair, with only the upper edge and margins of the nostrils naked. The limbs are short and strong, the feet are fully webbed and clawed, and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The skull is flat but strongly built.</p> <p>Habitat. Coastal wetlands, peat swamps, swamps, large rivers, lakes, and mountain streams.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The dietis said to be primarily fish, but also includes snakes, frogs, small mammals, crabs, and insects.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered in The [UCN Red List. The Hairy-nosed Otteris the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. Once believed to be extinct, it has been rediscovered in different parts of South-east Asia such as Cambodia (Tonle Sap wetlands), Malaysia (Terengganu and Maur), Sumatra, Thailand (Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest), and Viet Nam (U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta). Historically it has also been reported from Brunei, Myanmar, and Penang Island. Very little is known about the Hairy-nosed Otter, but it is likely that it is threatened by destruction of peat swamp forests for logging and agriculture. Research is critically needed on all aspects of this species’ ecology and biology.</p> <p>Bibliography. Banks (1949), Francis (2008), IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Medway (1969), Nguyen et al. (2001), Poole (2003), Sivasothi &amp; Burhanuddin (1994), Tate (1947), Van Zyll de Jong (1972), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4AFFA5CFF43DEDF5BDF8EF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.text	038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aonyx capensis (Schinz 1821)	<div><p>36.</p> <p>African Clawless Otter</p> <p>Aonyx capensis</p> <p>French: Loutre a joues blanches / German: Fingerotter / Spanish: Nutria africana</p> <p>Other common names: Cape Clawless Otter, Congo Clawless Otter</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra capensis Schinz, 1821,</p> <p>Cape of Good Hope.</p> <p>The Congo Clawless Otter (Aonyx congicus) is considered a separate species by some authors, based on morphological and ecological evidence; however, further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status. It is here included as a subspecies of A. capensis. Two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>A. c. capensis Schinz, 1821 — Sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal in the W to E Ethiopia, and E Africa to Western Cape. Absent from Congo Basin and the most arid zones of Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.</p> <p>A. c. congicus Lonnberg, 1910 — Congo Basin in WC Africa.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 76.2-88 cm (males), 73-73.6 cm (females), tail 46-5— 51- 5 cm (males), 49.5-51.5 cm (females); weight 10-21 kg (males), 10.6-16.3 kg (females), adult males are larger and heavier than females. The African Clawless Otteris large and heavily built. The pelage is dark brown to black throughout, but the sides of the face, neck and throat are white or pale gray. There is a quadrangular dark brown patch between the eye and the nose; the cheeks are white. The hindfeet are partially webbed, but the front feet are not. The toes are clawless except for the three middle toes of each hindfoot, which bear small grooming claws. The cheek teeth are smaller in congicus than in capensis. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 4/3, M 1/2 = 36.</p> <p>Habitat. African Clawless Otters are mainly found in rainforests and lowland swamp forests, but may also inhabit forested rivers and streams in open coastal plains and semi-arid country. They occur mostly in fresh water; some populations inhabit saltwater coasts, but because they require fresh water to drink, even coastal populations occur near freshwater tributaries. They also occupy many natural or man-made lakes and reservoirs, but prefer areas of shallow water. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters prefer riverine habitats covered with dense vegetation, while areas of short grass are avoided. They also select areas with boulders and/or reed beds, which provide high crab density and shelter. In southern Nigeria, African Clawless Otters are mainly restricted to brackish streams (with mangrove vegetation along the banks) and, more occasionally, transitional habitats between freshwater and brackish-water environments.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. African Clawless Otters are primarily crab eaters, but other foods such as frogs, fish, and insects are consumed. Fish increases in importance in the diet during winter, when they are lethargic and easier to capture. Lobsters, octopus, and shellfish are eaten along the seacoast. In two reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, the diet was more varied at Mkambati (15 prey species) than Dwessa (seven species). In terms of relative percentage frequency of occurrence, the spiny lobster (Panulirus homarus) was found to be the most common prey item at both Mkambati (37-9%) and at Dwessa (35-2%), followed by fish (31% and 36-6%, respectively), crabs (22:4% and 19-7%) and molluscs (3-1% and 4-2%). Lobster and fish are relatively abundant within these reserves, suggesting prey availability rather than selective feeding influenced diet. At another site in the Eastern Cape Province, the three most common prey categories found in otter spraints were the crab Potamonaules perlatus (51%), insects (19%), and the fish Tilapia sparrmanii (18%). At Betty’s Bay, South Africa, fish are the most important prey category (59% of the biomass), followed by octopus (15%), red rock crab Plagusia chabrus (13%), cape lobsterJasus lalandii (10%), and the brown rock crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (0-8%). In eastern Zimbabwe, the diet is mainly the river crab Potamon perlatus (42%). African Clawless Otters use various hunting methods. In shallow or murky water, they detect crabs with their forefeet as they feel around underwater rock crevices. Prey is grabbed with the forefeet and then bitten and eaten. In shallow but clear water, African Clawless Otters may immerse their heads and scan for prey visually while feeling under rocks with the forefeet. In deeper water, they dive straight down and can remain underwater for up to 50 seconds. African Clawless Otters eat small prey while they swim upright at the surface, whereas larger prey are taken to shore for consumption. In South Africa, African Clawless Otters were observed to select open water within 8 m of the shore. Foraging involved moving into shallow water (c. 0-2 m deep) and walking along the substrate feeling for prey with the forefeet. African Clawless Otters prefer hunting at depths of 0-5- 1- 5 m.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, but may be active during the day in areas remote from human disturbance. Rest sites are in burrows (holts), under large rocks or root systems, or in dense vegetation near water; they may dig their own burrows. In South Africa, the occurrence of spraints, couches and resting places is closely tied to freshwater sources; holts are located adjacent to river banks, oxbow lakes, or dam shores, and spraint sites are found in dense, tall grass cover beside water less than 1 m deep. In the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa, the activity at several holts indicated about 32% utilization, with an estimated one otter to every three holts.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. African Clawless Otters are highly mobile and nightly movements may reach 13 km. Although mostly solitary, family groups comprising one female with her young, or groups of males, may occur. Home ranges are estimated at 14-20 km ”. In South Africa, a radio-tracked adult male had a minimum home range of 19- 5 km of coast, with a core area of 12 km; an adult female had a 14-3 km-long home range, with a 7- 5 km core area. Apparently, there was a clantype social organization, with groups of related animals defending jointterritories. In another area in South Africa, total range length varied from 4-9 to 54- 1 km and core length from 0-2 to 9- 8 km; the total area of water used varied between 4-9 and 1062-5 ha, and core areas from 1-1 to 138-9 ha. The pattern of home range use by females was suggestive ofterritoriality, whereas male otters had overlapping home ranges, both with other males and females. Population densities vary with food abundance (especially crabs) and range from 2-7 otters per 10 km of coastline or stream. Along the coast of South Africa, the mean population density was one per 1-9 km and dens were spaced at intervals of 470 m.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating may occur anytime during the year, but most births occur during the start of the rainy season. Births have been recorded in July and August in Zambia, and young have been found in March and April in Uganda. There appears to be no set breeding season in West Africa. Most births in a coastal area of South Africa occurred in December and January. Gestation lasts 63 days. The litter size is one to three. The young are born blind, but with some fur. Their eyes open after 16-30 days, and weaning occurs after 60 days. Sexual maturity is reached during the first year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I and II. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List; the Congo Clawless Otter (congicus) is also listed as Least Concern. Habitat alteration and water pollution are the main threats to this species, asit affects the abundance of crabs and other prey. Additionally, the African Clawless Otter is hunted for its pelt and medicinal purposes in some areas and killed in others as a perceived competitorfor fish, particularly where the Rainbow Trout has been introduced.</p> <p>Bibliography. Angelici et al. (2005), Arden-Clark (1986), Baranga (1995), Carugati et al. (1995), Emmerson &amp; Philip (2004), Kingdon (1971-1982), Ligthart et al. (1994), Nel &amp; Somers (2007), Perrin &amp; Carugati (2000), Purves et al. (1994), Reuther et al. (2003), Roberts (1951), Rosevear (1974), Rowe-Rowe (1977a, 1977b, 1992a, 1995), Rowe-Rowe &amp; Somers (1998), Somers (2000), Somers &amp; Nel (2004), Somers &amp; Purves (1996), Stuart (1981), Van der Zee (1981, 1982), Van Niekerk et al. (1998), Verwoerd (1987), Watson &amp; Lang (2003), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4AFFA4CFE83488FAF0F3C7	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.text	038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Aonyx cinereus (Illiger 1815)	<div><p>37.</p> <p>Asian Small-clawed Otter</p> <p>Aonyx cinereus</p> <p>French: Loutre cendrée / German: Zwergotter / Spanish: Nutria chica</p> <p>Other common names: Oriental Small-clawed Otter</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra cinerea Illiger, 1815,</p> <p>Batavia, Indonesia.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>A. c. cinereus Illiger, 1815 — S &amp; SE China (including Hainan), Mainland SE Asia, Philippines (Palawan), Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.</p> <p>A. c. concolor Rafinesque, 1832 — Sub-Himalan zone in Nepal, Bhutan, NE India, N Myanmar, and SW China.</p> <p>A. c. nirnai Pocock, 1940 — SW India.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36-44 cm (males), 43: 2-46.8 cm (females), tail 22.5-27 cm (males), 26-27.5 cm (females); weight 2: 40.3-80 kg. Asian Small-clawed Otters are the smallest of the world’s otter species. They have long bodies and short legs, and dorso-ventrally flattened tails. The pelage is uniformly brown exceptfor the neck, throat and chin, which are grayish-silver, sometimes almost white. The head 1s quite small, with eyes that are proportionally larger than in other otters. There are two pairs of mammae. Claws are present but reduced on all the feet; the webbing on all the feet is incomplete. The skull is small, short and wide. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P 3/3, M 1/2 = 34. Thefirst premolars are usually absent. The upper and lower carnassials and the upper molar are very large.</p> <p>Habitat. Asian Small-clawed Otters are found along lakes and rivers, in coastal wetlands, marshes, mangroves, and rice fields. They sometimes occur close to human settlements.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is primarily crabs and shellfish. Fish, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, and insects are also eaten. In Thailand, 95% of spraints contained the crab Potamon smithianus, 40% contained amphibians and fish, 15% contained small mammals, and 5% contained arthropods. The size of crabs consumed by Asian Smallclawed Otters reflects what is available in the watershed they inhabit. Asian Smallclawed Otters coexist with Eurasian, Hairy-nosed, and Smooth-coated Otters in numerous locations, including severalriver systems in Thailand and Malaysia. Although all three species consume the same prey, the Asian Small-clawed Otter is predominantly a crab eater, whereas the other species consume mostly fish. Prey are captured mostly by sight, but also by touch, using their dextrous forefeet. Shellfish are dug up and left in the sun so that the heat causes them to open, allowing Asian Small-clawed Otters to consume them without having to crush the shells.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Primarily diurnal, although reported to be nocturnal or crepuscular when found close to humans. During the day, Asian Small-clawed Otters often rest and groom on grassy or sandy banks near water. In marshes, they use mostly islands. Resting sites often show signs of spraint smearing, a behavior also observed in captivity. Defecation sites used by the Asian Small-clawed Otter occasionally are shared with Eurasian and Smooth-coated Otters and thus cannot be differentiated with certainty. Asian Small-clawed Otters have a diverse vocal repertoire that includes at least twelve different sounds, such as alarm, greeting, and mating calls.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Asian Small-clawed Otters are playful and sociable animals, and often travel and forage in groups of up to 12-13 individuals. In captivity, they can swim underwater at speeds of 0-7- 1-2 m /s.</p> <p>Breeding. Asian Small-clawed Otters are monogamous and both parents help in raising the offspring. In captivity, females come into estrus every 28-30 days and estrus lasts three days. Gestation is c. 60 days. Females in captivity build a nest of grass two weeks before parturition. One pair may produce up to two litters per year. Litter size can be up to seven, but averages four. Neonates weigh about 50 g and measure around 14 cm in length, and are covered in silver gray fur. The eyes are closed until the fifth week. The young learn to swim at seven weeks of age, and attain sexual maturity during their first year. In captivity, males spend more time maintaining the nest, whereas females spend more time grooming and training young. In the wild and in captivity, oldersiblings may help raise offspring.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in the. Asian Small-clawed Otters are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution from organochlorines. Local persecution may also affect populations where they are perceived as competitors for fish resources. In parts of Asia, their organs have traditional medicinal value. Very little is known about the ecology of this species and field studies are needed.</p> <p>Bibliography. Foster-Turley &amp; Engfer (1988), Francis (2008), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lariviere (2003a), Leslie (1970), Medway (1969), Nor (1990), Shariff (1985), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yoshiyuki (1971).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4BFFA4CAAC30ACF6DFF56A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.text	038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lutrogale perspicillata Gray 1865	<div><p>38.</p> <p>Smooth-coated Otter</p> <p>Lutrogale perspicillata</p> <p>French: Loutre indienne / German: Indischer Fischotter / Spanish: Nutria lisa</p> <p>Taxonomy. Lutra perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826,</p> <p>Sumatra.</p> <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>L. p. perspicillata Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1826 — SE Asia from India, S China, and Mainland SE Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and E Java.</p> <p>L. p. maxwelli Hayman, 1957 — Iraq and possibly bordering Iran.</p> <p>L. p. sindica Pocock, 1940 — Afghanistan and Pakistan.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 59-75 cm, tail 37-45 cm; weight 7-11 kg. A large otter, with a very smooth pelage, naked rhinarium, and fully clawed and webbed feet. The pelage ranges from reddish-brown to dark brown, with paler undersides. The upper lip, sides of face, throat, and upper chest are gray. The upper margin of the rhinarium is flat. The vibrissae are well-developed and the tail is flat dorso-ventrally. The large feet have webbing that extends to the secondjoint of each digit. There are two pairs of mammae. The skull is high and wide, with a broad rostrum. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P4/3,M 1/2 = 36.</p> <p>Habitat. Smooth-coated Otters are found in inland and coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded swamps, mangroves, and along rivers and irrigation canals. They prefer waterways with banks that are rocky and well vegetated. Smooth-coated Otters are notrestricted to deep water and often forage in small, shallow rivers and seasonally flooded swamps during the monsoons (July-September) and early winter (October-February) in India and Nepal. They commonly inhabit rice fields adjacent to mangroves along coastal areas. In Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters were found to be more abundant in mangroves. On Java, they are restricted to coastal wetlands. When occupying saltwater areas, Smooth-coated Otters require freshwater nearby.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly fish, but may also include small mammals, invertebrates (insects, crabs, and crustaceans), frogs, snakes, and birds. Most fish consumed are 5-30 cm in length. In Rajasthan, India, spraints contained fish (96%), insects (7%), birds (5%), molluscs (3%), frogs (1%), and worms (1%). At Periyar Lake in Kerala, India, fish were found to be the major prey: 32% tilapia (Tilapia mossambica), 26% catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), 16% curmuca barb (Gonoproktopetrus curmuca), 15% European carp (Cyprinus caprio), 3% Deccan mahsheer (Tor khudree), and 1% Periyar barb (Barbus micropogon); a higher intake of bottom-dwelling catfish was observed during periods of low water. Other food items were 4% frogs, 2% crabs, 0-7% birds, and 0-02% insects. In Nepal, spraints contained mainly fish; minor food items were frogs, crabs, shrimp, snakes, and insects. In Perak, Malaysia, Smooth-coated Otters eat mostly fish (82% of spraints, mainly Trichogaster pectoralis), followed by molluscs, mammals, and insects (Coleoptera). In Thailand, 70% of spraints contained fish, 13% amphibians, 11% crabs, 4% snakes, and 2% arthropods. Smooth-coated Otters forage in the less rocky areas of lake shallows. Most foraging activity occurs in water; they go on land to rest and defecate. Small fish are swallowed whole, but large fish are taken to shore.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly diurnal, with a rest period around midday. Den /rest sites occur under tree roots, in openings created by piles of boulders, or in dense vegetation. Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own dens and they sometimes rest on bare sand and grassy areas along river banks. In Nepal, eight dens were in exposed tree roots and one was a tunnel in the sand. In India and Nepal, dens are found in swamps; these are sometimes used as natal den sites and nurseries. Spraint sites often smell of rotten fish. In Thailand, spraint sites occur on small rocks, sand banks, and large boulders, 1-3 m above water level. The mean number of spraints on each site was 2-2. Smooth-coated Otters often roll and rub on grassy areas, especially after defecation.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Smooth-coated Otters are excellent swimmers and are able to swim underwater for long distances. They are social and are often seen in groups of up to eleven individuals; groups typically consist of a mated pair with young from previouslitters. It is estimated that a group of Smooth-coated Otters requires 7-12 km ofriver to sustain their needs. Population density is 1-1-3 otters per km of water.</p> <p>Breeding. In India and Nepal, mating occurs in the winter (October—February). Gestation lasts 60-63 days. Littersize is one to five. The young are born blind; the eyes open after ten days. Weaning occurs after three to five months. Adult size is reached after one year and sexual maturity after two to three years.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red Last. Although the Smooth-coated Otter may have been quite common in the past and populations stable,it is now likely this is changing rapidly and that this species will soon be in need of urgent help. Increasing human population acrossits range is putting the Smooth-coated Otter under pressure through habitat destruction and pollution. There is widespread conflict with aquaculturalists and fishermen, who kill them as pests and competitors. There is also deliberate trapping for fur in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, mainly for export to China. Although legally protected throughoutits range, this is weakly enforced. Movements of Smooth-coated Otters are limited due to arid regions, leading to poor dispersal and population fragmentation. Several authorities have recommended that ex situ as well as in situ conservation efforts should be made. Field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservationstatus.</p> <p>Bibliography. Anoop &amp; Hussain (2004, 2005), Biswas (1973), Corbet &amp; Hill (1992), Francis (2008), Hussain (1996), Hwang &amp; Lariviere (2005), Kruuk et al. (1994), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Medway (1969), Shariff (1985), Tate (1947), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Yadav (1967).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4BFFA3CFA4300BF823F936	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C.text	038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela africana Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>39.</p> <p>Amazon Weasel</p> <p>Mustela africana</p> <p>French: Belette des tropiques / German: Amazonas-Wiesel / Spanish: Comadreja amazonica</p> <p>Other common names: Tropical Weasel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela africana Desmarest, 1818,</p> <p>Brazil.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Amazon Basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 24-38 cm, tail 16-21 cm. The Amazon Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish to dark brown, with paler undersides. The underparts have a longitudinal median stripe of the same color as the upper parts. The tail is uniformly brown. The plantar surfaces on the feet are nearly naked.</p> <p>Habitat. Has been reported from primary forest and humid riparian habitats.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Possibly diurnal: a group of four were seen around 10:00 h. Has been found denning in a hollow tree stump.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Said to be primarily terrestrial, but also reported to be a good swimmer and climber. Has been seen in a group offour.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. One of the least known species within the Mustelidae. Amazon Weasels are a high priority for field studies to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1992), zor &amp; de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACC3E0DFB9BF91C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A.text	038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela altaica Pallas 1811	<div><p>40.</p> <p>Altai Mountain Weasel</p> <p>Mustela altaica</p> <p>French: Belette des montagnes / German: Altai-Wiesel / Spanish: Comadreja de montana</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela altaica Pallas, 1811,</p> <p>Altai Mountains, China.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Altai, Tien Shan, Pamir, and Himalayan ranges; also C, W, SW &amp; NE China, Mongolia, and Russia (S &amp; SE Siberia) to North Korea.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22.4-28.7 cm (males), 21.7-24.9 cm fen tail 10.8-14.5 cm (males), 9-11.7 cm (females); weight 217-350 g (males), 122-220 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females; the tail is more than 40% of the head and body length. The Altai Mountain Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The summer pelage is grayish-brown; in winter, the dorsal pelage is yellowish-brown, with pale undersides. The tail is the same color as the upperparts. The feet are white. The skull has a short rostrum and a long cerebral cranium.</p> <p>Habitat. Alpine meadows, steppes and forests, from 1500 to 4000 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals (rodents, pikas, and rabbits), small birds, lizards, frogs, fish, insects, and berries. Altai Mountain Weasels search for prey around rock crevices, brushy areas, and uprooted trees, often investigating prey burrows.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Mainly nocturnal or crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in rock crevices, among tree roots, or in rodent burrows.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mainly terrestrial, but also climbs and swim well.</p> <p>Breeding. In Kazakh, mating occurs in February or March. Gestation is 35-50 days. Litter size is two to eight; lactation last two months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened in The IUCN Red List. Very little 1s known about the Altai Mountain Weasel and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is oflittle importance in the fur trade, but is occasionally hunted and may be susceptible to habitat conversion.</p> <p>Bibliography. Lunde &amp; Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), Pocock (1941a), Stroganov (1969), Van Bree &amp; Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4EFFA1CACD3AD9FD80F33A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.text	038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela erminea Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>41.</p> <p>Ermine</p> <p>Mustela erminea</p> <p>French: Belette hermine / German: Hermelin / Spanish: Armino</p> <p>Other common names: Stoat, Short-tailed Weasel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>Thirty-four subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. e. erminea Linnaeus, 1758 — Finland, Norway, NW Russia, and Sweden.</p> <p>M. e. aestiva Kerr, 1792 — most of mainland N &amp; C Europe to C Asia in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.</p> <p>M. e. alascensis Merriam, 1896 — S Alaska.</p> <p>M. e. anguinae Hall, 1932 — SW Canada (Vancouver I, British Columbia).</p> <p>M. e. arctica Merriam, 1896 — Alaska and NW Canada.</p> <p>M. e. bangsi Hall, 1945 — C Canada and NC USA.</p> <p>M. e. celenda Hall, 1944 — Alaska (Prince of Wales I).</p> <p>M.e. cicognanii Bonaparte, 1838 — SE Canada and NE USA.</p> <p>M. e. fallenda Hall, 1945 — W Canada (British Columbia) and NW USA (N Washington).</p> <p>M. e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895 — Afghanistan, N India, and Pakistan.</p> <p>M.e. gulosa Hall, 1945 — NW USA (E Washington).</p> <p>M.e. haidarum Preble, 1898 — W Canada (Queen Charlotte Is, British Columbia).</p> <p>M.e. hibernica Thomas &amp; Barrett-Hamilton, 1895 — Ireland.</p> <p>M.e. imatis Hall, 1944 — Alaska (Baranof I).</p> <p>M.e. invicta Hall, 1945 — SW Canada (Alberta) and NW USA (Idaho &amp; Montana).</p> <p>M.e. kadiacensis Merriam, 1896 — Alaska (Kodiak I).</p> <p>M.e. kaneti Baird, 1857 — NE China, Russia (E Siberia).</p> <p>M.e. karaginensis Jurgenson, 1936 — NE Russia (Karaginsky I).</p> <p>M.e. lymani Hollister, 1912 — E Russia (Altai Mts, Siberia).</p> <p>M.e. minima Cavazza, 1912 — Switzerland.</p> <p>M.e. mongolica Ognev, 1928 — NW China and Mongolian Altai.</p> <p>M. e. muricus Bangs, 1899 — USA (N California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah &amp; Wyoming).</p> <p>M. e. nippon Cabrera, 1913 — Japan.</p> <p>M.e. olympica Hall, 1945 — NW USA (Olympic Peninsula, Washington).</p> <p>M.e. polaris Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 — Greenland.</p> <p>M.e.richardsonii Bonaparte, 1838 — N Canada.</p> <p>M.e. ricinae G. S. Miller, 1907 — Scotland (Islay I).</p> <p>M.e.salva Hall, 1944 — SE Alaska (Admiralty I).</p> <p>M.e.seclusa Hall, 1944 — SE Alaska (Suemez I).</p> <p>M.e.sempler Sutton &amp; Hamilton, 1932 — Canada (Franklin &amp; Keewatin Districts).</p> <p>M.e.stabilis Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 — Great Britain.</p> <p>M.e.streatori Merriam, 1896 — W USA (NE California, Oregon &amp; coastal Washington).</p> <p>M.e.teberdina Kornejv, 1941 — Russian Caucasus.</p> <p>M.e. tobolica Ognev, 1923 — W Siberia.</p> <p>Introduced to New Zealand.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 22: 5-34 cm (males), 19-29 cm (females); tail 4.2-12 cm; weight of males is 208-283 ¢ in Europe, 320 g in Britain, 285-356 g in New Zealand (introduced population), 233-365 g in Ireland, 134-191 g in Russia, 56-206 g in North America, adult males are 40-80% larger than females. The Ermine has a long, slender body and short limbs. Except in certain southern parts of their range, Ermines change color in April-May and October-November. In the summer, the back, flanks, and outersides of the limbs are reddish or chocolate brown; the underparts are white and the tip of the tail is black. During winter, the pelage becomes white throughout except for the black tip of the tail. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull has a long braincase, inflated tympanic bullae, and is relatively flat. Dental formula: I 3/3, Cl/A.P3/3:;M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. Ermines are found in a wide range of habitats, including tundra, alpine meadows, woodlands, marshes, mountains, riparian habitats, farmland, and hedgerows, from sea level up to 3000 m. They prefer areas with vegetative or rocky cover. In the mountains of south-east British Columbia, Ermines were detected in all forests surveyed; these covered the range from open dry Douglas-fir forests to dense wet western red cedar (Thwa plicata) and western hemlock (75uga heterophylla) forests, and from very recent clear-cuts to mature stands over 300 years in age. In a subarctic area in Finland, adult females were found to live in areas where the abundance of their preferred Microtus prey was the highest; dominant males lived in less productive habitats than females, but in more productive areas than non-dominant mature males.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats, lemmings, squirrels, and lagomorphs, but also includes birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, snakes, insects, earthworms, and fruit. In Great Britain, the percentage frequency of occurrence in the diet consists of 65% lagomorphs, 16% small rodents, and 17% birds and birds’ eggs; males eat a greater proportion of lagomorphs than females, which eat more small rodents. In Denmark (where European Rabbits are absent), a dietary study showed that rodents are the most important prey group, constituting 84% of their diet (frequency of occurrence). Ermines ate birds and birds’ eggs more often than sympatric Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more insectivores. Ermines ate more Microtus voles and Water Voles than Least Weasels, while Least Weasels ate more Bank Voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Moles (Talpa europaea). In the Italian Alps, 60% of scats contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey. However, the frequency of occurrence offruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50% in July. In the forests of New Brunswick, Canada, the frequency of occurrence of prey is 28-0% soricids, 24:6% arvicolines, and 17-3% cricetines; the Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus, 17-3%) and shrews (Sorex sp., 28-:0%) have the highest percent occurrence, whereas the Red Squirrel and the Eastern Chipmunk (7amius striatus) comprise 11-2% of the diet. Ermines generally hunt in a zig-zag pattern, progressing by a series of leaps that are up to 50 cm long. Prey are located mostly by smell or sound, and are often pursued into underground burrows or under snow. Ermines usually kill prey by biting the base of the skull. They sometimes attack animals considerably larger than themselves, such as adult hares. Ermines may cache excess food underground for later use during the winter.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal, but can be active at any time during the day. Their long shape makes them sensitive to cold temperatures and this, combined with a high metabolic rate, requires that Ermines hunt constantly to fulfill their energetic demands. Short periods of activity and rest alternate every three to five hours. Dens/ rest sites are in crevices, among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in burrows taken over from a rodent. Several nests are maintained within an individual’s home range; these are lined with dry vegetation or the fur and feathers of its prey. Ermines can easily run over or tunnel in snow to escape predators and search for food.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Ermines are solitary and primarily terrestrial, but they are also agile tree climbers and strong swimmers. Daily movements may reach 15 km, but usually average c. 1 km. Movements increase when prey are rare or dispersed. Home ranges may reach 200 ha, but are typically 10-40 ha; male ranges are generally larger than female ranges. Both sexes maintain exclusive territories, but a male home range may overlap one or more female ranges. Males show a marked seasonal shift in their social organization from a pattern of intra-sexual territories during the non-breeding season (autumn and winter) to a non-territorial pattern with extensive and overlapping ranges during the mating season (spring and summer). Boundaries are regularly patrolled and scent-marked, and neighbors usually avoid each other. Population density fluctuates with prey abundance and may range from 2-6 individuals per km®.</p> <p>Breeding. Females are polyestrous, but produce only one litter per year; the estrous cycle is four weeks. Mating occurs in late spring or early summer, but implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus is delayed for 9-10 months. Embryonic development is just over one month. Births occur in April or May in the Northern Hemisphere and around October in New Zealand. Litter size may reach 18, but typically is four to eight. Neonates are born blind, naked, and weigh 2-7-4- 2 g. Their eyes open after four to six weeks. Solid food is taken after four or five weeks, though lactation may continue until weeks seven to twelve. They grow rapidly and by eight weeks are able to hunt with their mother. At two to three months, their permanent detention is complete. Females reach adult size at six months. They attain sexual maturity at two to three months and sometimes mate during their first summer. Males attain full size and sexual maturity after one year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Ermines are considered common throughout their distribution. They rarely molest poultry and are valuable to humans because they prey on mice and rats. However, Ermines are considered pests in New Zealand, where they were introduced to control rabbits but subsequently decimated populations of native birds. On the Iberian Peninsula, the Ermine is dependent on two Arvicola species, which are declining in numbers. Ermines are trapped in North America and Russia for their fur; the white winter fur has long been used in trimming coats and making stoles.</p> <p>Bibliography. Edwards &amp; Forbes (2003), EImeros (2006), Erlinge &amp; Sandell (1986), Hellstedt &amp; Henttonen (2006), Hellstedt et al. (2006), King (1983, 1990), Martinoli et al. (2001), McDonald et al. (2000), Mowat &amp; Poole (2005), Robitaille &amp; Raymond (1995), Samson &amp; Raymond (1998), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4EFFA0CFFA3D2AFB7EF53F	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1.text	038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela eversmanii Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>42.</p> <p>Steppe Polecat</p> <p>Mustela eversmanii</p> <p>French: Putois d'Eversmann / German: Steppeniltis / Spanish: Turon estepario</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela eversmanii Lesson, 1827,</p> <p>Russia.</p> <p>The Steppe Polecat was considered conspecific with either M. putorius or M. nigripes by some authors. Up to nineteen subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. SE Europe, Caucasus, and Middle East through C Asia to NE China, Mongolia, and Russian Far East</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 37-56.2 cm (males), 29-52 cm (females); tail 8-18.3 cm (males), 7-18 cm (females); weight 2:05 kg (males), 1-35 kg (females), adult males are larger than females. The Steppe Polecat closely resembles the European Polecat. The pelage is highly variable in color, but generally is yellowish-white to brown, with the upperparts darker than the undersides. The fur on the chest, limbs, and tail is darker in color, and there is a dark mask on the whitish face.</p> <p>Habitat. Steppe, open grasslands, and semi-desert.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes rodents (voles, hamsters, marmots), other small mammals (pikas, ground squirrels), birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In Hungary, the principle food consists of small mammals; their frequency fluctuates between 54% and 93%, reaching a maximum in summer. In all seasons, the most important prey is the Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) and the Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus); in addition, the European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is occasionally consumed in spring and autumn, and Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) may be eaten in autumn. The European Hare is eaten only in winter (5%). The consumption of birds (mainly Passerines) is considerable in spring (38%) and autumn (29%). A stable isotope study revealed a diet that comprised 27% small mammals (Plateau Pika, Root Vole, and Plateau Zokor) and 47-7% adult passerine birds, with hatchlings contributing 25:6%. Steppe Polecats hunt by exploring the burrows of their mammalian prey and thus they may spend much time underground.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal. Den /rest sites are in burrows expropriated from other animals.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Steppe Polecats are solitary. They move rapidly, constantly exploring new ground and searching for food, and may cover up to 18 km during the night. Local migrations may occur to areas with greater food abundance or less snow.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from February to March, with births from April to May. Gestation lasts 38-41 days. Litters are large, usually from eight to ten. The young weigh 4-6 g at birth, open their eyes after one month, and are weaned and start hunting with the mother at 1-5 months. They disperse at three months. Sexual maturity is reached during the first breeding season, when the young are nine months old.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List; the subspecies M. e. amurensis, of south-eastern Siberia and Manchuria, is classified as Vulnerable. Little is known about this species and field studies are needed to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is not intentionally hunted except in Russia, but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range.</p> <p>Bibliography. Lanszki &amp; Heltai (2007), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CAD136E3F6A4F9E1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC.text	038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela felipei Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>43.</p> <p>Colombian Weasel</p> <p>Mustela felipei</p> <p>French: Belette de Colombie / German: Kolumbien-Wiesel / Spanish: Comadreja de Don Felipe</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela felipei 1zor &amp; de la Torre, 1978,</p> <p>Colombia.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Colombia and Ecuador.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 21.7-22.5 cm, tail 11.1-12.2 cm; weight c. 138 g. The Columbian Weasel has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is long and soft, almost entirely dark brown on the back, with pale orange undersides. All the feet have extensive webbing, with naked plantar surfaces.</p> <p>Habitat. Most specimens were collected near riparian areas, at elevations between 1700-2700 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable in The IUCN Red List. A very poorly known species, only recently described. Possibly the rarest carnivore in South America, it occurs in a limited area ofless than 10,000 km? where deforestation is rampant. Since its discovery, only five specimens have been obtained from western Colombia (provinces of Huila and Cauca) and northern Ecuador. The Columbian Weasel is a high priority for field research to learn more aboutits natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Alberico (1994), Fawcett et al. (1996), IUCN (2008), Izor &amp; de la Torre (1978), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4FFFA0CFCE3AC2F5C8F4DC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.text	038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela frenata Lichtenstein 1831	<div><p>44.</p> <p>Long-tailed Weasel</p> <p>Mustela frenata</p> <p>French: Belette a longue queue / German: Langschwanzwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja colilarga</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831,</p> <p>Ciudad Mexico, Mexico.</p> <p>Forty-two subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. f. frenata Lichtenstein, 1831 — NE Mexico and S USA (S Texas).</p> <p>M. f. affinis Gray, 1874 — Colombia.</p> <p>M. f. agilis Tschudi, 1844 — W Peru.</p> <p>M. f. alleni Merriam, 1896 — C USA (South Dakota &amp; Wyoming).</p> <p>M. f. altifrontalis Hall, 1936 — SW Canada (British Columbia) and NW USA (coastal Oregon &amp; Washington).</p> <p>M. f. arizonensis Mearns, 1891 — SW USA (Arizona).</p> <p>M. f. arthuri Hall, 1927 — S USA (Louisiana).</p> <p>M. f. aureoventris Gray, 1865 — Ecuador.</p> <p>M. f. boliviensis Hall, 1938 — Bolivia.</p> <p>M. f. costaricensis Goldman, 1912 — CostaRica.</p> <p>M. f. effera Hall, 1936 — NW USA (NE Oregon &amp; SE Washington).</p> <p>M. f. goldmani Merriam, 1896 — El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico (Chiapas).</p> <p>M. f. helleri Hall, 1935 — E Peru.</p> <p>M. f. inyoensis Hall, 1936 — SW USA (Inyo County, California).</p> <p>M. f. latirostra Hall, 1936 — NW Mexico (Baja California) and SW USA (S California).</p> <p>M. f. leucoparia Merriam, 1896 — SW Mexico.</p> <p>M. f. longicauda Bonaparte, 1838 — Great Plains of Canada and USA.</p> <p>M. f. macrophonius Elliot, 1905 — S Mexico (Oaxaca &amp; Veracruz).</p> <p>M. f. macrura Taczanowski, 1874 — Peru (Cajamarca).</p> <p>M. f. meridana Hollister, 1914 — Venezuela.</p> <p>M. f. munda Bangs, 1899 — SW USA (NC coastal California).</p> <p>M. f. neomexicana Barber &amp; Cockerell, 1898 — C &amp; N Mexico and SW USA (New Mexico).</p> <p>M. f. nevadensis Hall, 1936 — W USA (Great Basin &amp; Rocky Mts).</p> <p>M. f. nicaraguae]. A. Allen, 1916 — Honduras and Nicaragua.</p> <p>M. f. nigriauris Hall, 1936 — SW USA (SC coastal California).</p> <p>M. f. noveboracensis Emmons, 1840 — SE Canada and E USA.</p> <p>M. f. occisor Bangs, 1899 — NE USA (Maine).</p> <p>M. f. olivacea Howell, 1913 — SE USA.</p> <p>M. f. oregonensis Merriam, 1896 — W USA (Cascade Mts of Oregon).</p> <p>M. f. oribasus Bangs, 1899 — SW Canada (British Columbia) and NW USA (Montana).</p> <p>M. f. panamensis Hall, 1932 — Panama.</p> <p>M. f. peninsulae Rhoads, 1894 — SE USA (S Florida).</p> <p>M. f. perda Merriam, 1902 — Yucatan Peninsula, Belize and Mexico.</p> <p>M. f. perotae Hall, 1936 — C Mexico.</p> <p>M. f. primulina Jackson, 1913 — Midwestern USA.</p> <p>M. f. pulchra Hall, 1936 — SW USA (Kern County, California).</p> <p>M. f. saturata Merriam, 1896 — W USA (NC California &amp; S Oregon).</p> <p>M. f. spadix Bangs, 1896 — N USA (Minnesota).</p> <p>M. f. texensis Hall, 1936 — S USA (C Texas).</p> <p>M. f. tropicalis Merriam, 1896 — E Mexico (Tamaulipas &amp; Veracruz).</p> <p>M. f. washingtoni Merriam, 1896 — W USA (NC Oregon &amp; SC Washington).</p> <p>M. f. xanthogenys Gray, 1843 — SW USA (C California).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body length, 22-: 8-26 cm (males), 20.3-22.8 cm (females); tail 10.2-15.2 cm (males), 7.6-12.7 cm (females); weight 160-450 g (males), 80-250 g (females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Long-tailed Weasel has a long body and short limbs. In Canada and the northern United States, the pelage changes from early October to early December and from late February to late April. During the summer, the upperparts are brown, the underparts are buff, and the tip of the tail is black. In winter, the pelage is white except for the black-tipped tail. Subspecies from the southern USA, Mexico and Central America, have distinctive white or yellow facial markings. The plantar surfaces on the feet are furred. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long, with large tympanic bullae. Dental formula: 13/3, Cl/1,P%3/3,M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. [Long-tailed Weasels are found in a wide range of habitats from forested areas to agricultural fields. They show a preference for open, brushy or grassy areas near water.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists mainly of rodents (voles, mice, and rats) and other small mammals (such as lagomorphs and squirrels), but birds, eggs, snakes, grasshoppers, and poultry are also occasionally eaten. Because of their larger size, males generally consume larger prey than females. In North America, Long-tailed Weasels feed upon a wide variety of small vertebrates, but concentrate on rodents and rabbits of small to medium size. The diet of tropical Long-tailed Weasels, although not well known,is thought to consist mainly of small mammals, rabbits, and birds and their eggs. Small-sized prey, such as mice and voles, usually are subdued when the weasel throws its body into a tight coil around the prey; these are then killed by a bite to the nape of the neck. Long-tailed Weasels can kill animals larger than themselves, such as rabbits. Large prey is initially grabbed by the most convenient part of the animal before a killing bite is administered. Underground mediumsized prey is subdued by a ventral attack and killed by grasping the throat, which results in suffocation.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal, but frequently active during the day. Den/rest sites are in hollow logs or stumps, among rocks, or in a burrow taken over from a rodent. Long-tailed Weasels spend large amounts of time exploring holes, crevices, root systems, brush piles, thick vegetation, and under the snow in winter, in search of prey.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. [Long-tailed Weasels are solitary and mainly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and tree climbers. The home ranges of males average larger than those of females, and may include the home ranges of more than one female. During the breeding season, the home ranges of males increase in size, allowing more frequent contact with females. There is little overlap of the home ranges of males. In Kentucky, home ranges vary from 0-16 to 0-24 km * during summer, and 0-10 to 0-18 km? during winter. In Indiana, the mean home range for males was 1-80 km * and for females 0-52 km *. The hourly rate of movement for males (130- 5 m) was greater than that of females (79- 2 m). Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability. Reported population densities are: 0-004-0-008 /ha in western Colorado, 0-02-0-18/ha in Kentucky, 0-19-0-38/ha in chestnut-oak forest and 0-07-0-09/ha in scrub oak-pitch pine forest in Pennsylvania, and 0-2-0-3/ha in cattail marsh in Ontario.</p> <p>Breeding. Females are monoestrous. Mating occurs in July and August. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterusis delayed until the following March; embryonic development is approximately 27 days. Births occur in April or May. Litter size is up to nine, but is usually around six. The young are born blind and weigh about 3 g at birth. They open their eyes after 35-37 days and are weaned at around 3% weeks. Females attain sexual maturity at three to four months, but males do not mate until the year following their birth.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Long-tailed Weasel is considered to be common throughout most ofits distribution; however, several subspecies are considered uncommon. It is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats and can live in close proximity to humans. Long-tailed Weasels are more prone to raid henhouses that other species of Mustela, but they are generally beneficial because they prey on rats and mice. They are trapped in North America for their white winter fur.</p> <p>Bibliography. Gehring &amp; Swihart (2004), King (1990), Sheffield &amp; Thomas (1997), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA4FFF9FCFCE3780F98DFBE1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0.text	038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela itatsi Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>45.</p> <p>Japanese Weasel</p> <p>Mustela itatsi</p> <p>French: Putois du Japon / German: Japan-Wiesel / Spanish: Comadreja japonesa</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela itatsi Temminck, 1844,</p> <p>Japan.</p> <p>The Japanese Weasel was previously considered a subspecies of the Siberian Weasel. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Japan. Introduced to Hokkaido and Russia (S Sakhalin).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-39 cm (males), 25-30- 56 cm (females); tail 15- 5— 21 cm (males), 13: 3-16.4 cm (females); weight 660-820 g (males), 360-430 g (females), adult males are almost twice the weight of females. The Japanese Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer, and becomes paler, almost yellowish brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white.</p> <p>Habitat. Forests. Often found in close proximity to water and sometimes near human dwellings.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes insects, reptiles, and small mammals. In Hamura, Japanese Weasels eat rodents, fish, arthropods, and crustaceans throughout the year; seasonal changes in the diet are small. In Tachikawa, the main food items are rodents and fruits in winter and spring, and arthropods and crustaceans in summer and autumn. On Zamami Island, where Japanese Weasels were introduced in 1957 and 1958, they eat a wide variety of prey, mainly insects, followed by reptiles and small mammals.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nocturnal.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Solitary.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in late winter and births occur in the spring.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Weasel is considered common throughout its range. This species has been introduced to certain areas to control reptiles and rats. Very little is known about Japanese Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Fujii et al. (1998), Keishi et al. (2002), Okada et al. (2007), Sekiguchi et al. (2002), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA70FF9FCFEF38CDFA54F5B0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34.text	038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela kathiah Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>46.</p> <p>Yellow-bellied Weasel</p> <p>Mustela kathiah</p> <p>French: Belette a ventre jaune / German: Gelbbauchwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja china</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835,</p> <p>Nepal.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Bhutan, S &amp; E China, N &amp; NE India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, N Thailand, and Vietnam.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-29 cm, tail 13-18 cm; weight 150-260 g. The Yellow-bellied Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The upperparts are dark chocolate to rusty brown; the underparts are pale yellow or light orange-brown. The chin and upper lip are whitish. The tail is bushy and the same color as the upperparts. Some white patches may occur on the feet.</p> <p>Habitat. Pine forests, up to 4000 m (above the timber line). In Western Himalaya from 3000-5200 m in the cold deserts, but in Hong Kong found in much lower altitudes, from close to sea-level to over 200 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet is said to include rodents, birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, insects, and fruit.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Duckworth &amp; Robichaud (2005), Francis (2008), IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA70FF9ECFEF367FFDB7FD34	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B.text	038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela lutreola Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>47.</p> <p>European Mink</p> <p>Mustela lutreola</p> <p>French: Vison d'Europe / German: Europaischer Nerz / Spanish: ison europeo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Viverra lutreola Linnaeus, 1761,</p> <p>Finland.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Belarus, Estonia, France, Latvia, Romania, Russia (W of Urals), and N Spain.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 20-36 cm, tail 12-17.5 cm; weight 650-1000 g (males), 500-600 g (females), adult males are slightly larger than females. The European Mink has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dense and short, and reddish-brown in color; the underparts are paler than the back. A margin of white occurs around the mouth and sometimes on the chest and throat. The skull is flat and narrow. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. European Mink are found along streams, rivers, and lakes. They are rarely found more than 100 m from fresh water and prefer waterways with densely vegetated banks. In south-Western Europe, radio-collared European Mink used areas that had low forest cover and bramble or shrub cover along the riverbank; they avoided areas with dense forest cover. In south-western France, radio-collared European Mink had a strong preference for flooded habitats, particularly open marshes, flooded woodlands, and moorlands; they seldom left riparian forest corridors.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crabs, and insects. The chief prey is often the Water Vole. In northern Spain, scat analysis revealed a diet based on small mammals (relative frequency of occurrence 36:9%), fish (30-6%), and birds (17-8%). The Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) was the most consumed small mammal and cyprinids (mainly Barbus sp.) were the most frequently eaten fish. The average size of consumed fish was 13- 5 cm, and the average weight was 31- 5 g; males ate larger and heavierfish than females. In north-east Belarus, three out of nine individuals studied were specialists on frogs (77-97%, mainly the common frog Rana temporaria). One individual fed mostly on crayfish (Astacus astacus, 62%), and the other five were generalist predators. Excess food may be cached for later use.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are in crevices, amongst tree roots and dense bramble patches, or in burrows, either self-excavated or taken from a Water Vole. In south-western France, rest sites were mainly found above ground in flooded areas, under bushes or in cavities between tree roots.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. European Mink are terrestrial, but swim and dive well. Home ranges average 32 ha for males and 26 ha for females. In south-Western Europe, the length of home ranges varied between 11-17 km along watercourses for five males, and was 0-6 and 3-6 km for two females. The home ranges of males were larger than those found in previous studies and most females captured were found within the home range of a male. Males occupied adjoining river sections with minimal range overlap, suggesting an intra-sexual exclusive spacing pattern for males. In autumn and winter, there may be extensive movements to locate swift, nonfrozen streams. Population densities may reach 12 animals/ 10 km of shoreline.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from February to March. Gestation is 35-72 days. Births occur in April and May in rock piles, under roots, in hollow trees, or in abandoned buildings. Litter size is two to seven, usually four or five. The young are born blind, and at birth average 8- 4 g for males and 7- 6 g for females. The eyes open after 30-36 days. They are weaned at ten weeks and attain sexual maturity after 9-10 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered in The IUCN Red List. The European Mink has declined over much of its former range and has been extirpated from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, and Slovakia. Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat in many parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats has been caused by hydroelectric development, river channelization, and water pollution. Although its fur is not as valuable as that of the American Mink, the European Mink was widely trapped for commercial purposes. It is now legally protected in all range states and at least part of the population occurs within protected areas. However, accidental trapping still poses a threat. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European Mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control Coypu (Myocastor coypus) and small carnivore species. Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas. Competition with the American Mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor. In Spain and France, hybridization with the European Polecat may also be a threat. Field studies have been undertaken to determine its ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spain and France, programmes have been started to control the American Mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association. Reintroduction efforts are underway in Germany and Russia. The European Mink has recently colonized and spread into northern Spain; it was absent from this country before 1950. Recent genetic studies have shown there is very low genetic variability within this species, which could pose an additional threat.</p> <p>Bibliography. Dunstone (1993), Fournier et al. (2007), Garin, Aihartza et al. (2002), Garin, Zuberogoitia, et al. (2002), Michaux, Hardy et al. (2005), Michaux, Libois et al. (2004), Palazon et al. (2004), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Youngman (1990), Zabala, Zuberogoitia, Garin &amp; Aihartza (2003), Zabala, Zuberogoitia &amp; Martinez-Climent (2006).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA71FF9ECAAD3EE4F91AFD6B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0.text	038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela lutreolina Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>48.</p> <p>Indonesian Mountain Weasel</p> <p>Mustela lutreolina</p> <p>French: Putois d'Indonésie / German: Indonesisches Bergwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja javanesa</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela lutreolina Robinson &amp; Thomas, 1917,</p> <p>west Java.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Java and S Sumatra.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 29.7-32.1 cm, tail 13.6-17 cm; weight 295-340 g. Indonesian Mountain Weasels resemble European Mink in both size and color.; The pelage is brown throughout, with no facial markings.</p> <p>Habitat. Specimens have been collected at elevations from 1000-2200 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN Red List. Virtually nothing is known about this species. This species is known only from the highlands of Sumatra and Java. On Java it occurs as far east as the Ijang plateau. On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province (Mount Dempo) and recently was recorded north to Kerinci. The Indonesian Mountain Weasel is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Lunde &amp; Musser (2003), Meiri et al. (2007), Van Bree &amp; Boeadi (1978), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA71FF9ECFA43F40F8ADF8F0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF.text	038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela nigripes Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>49.</p> <p>Black-footed Ferret</p> <p>Mustela nigripes</p> <p>French: Putois d’Amérique / German: Schwarzful3iltis / Spanish: Turon patinegro</p> <p>Taxonomy. Putorius nigripes Audubon &amp; Bachman, 1851,</p> <p>Wyoming, USA.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Great Plains of USA (Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah &amp; Wyoming) and N Mexico.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 40-50 cm, tail 11.4-15 cm; weight 964-1078 g (males), 764-854 g (females), adult males are larger than females. The Black-footed Ferret has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is yellowish-buff or beige with black hairs throughout; the underparts are paler. The forehead, muzzle, and throat are nearly white. The top of the head and middle of the back are brown. There is a distinctive, broad, horizontal black stripe across the face. The feet and terminal fourth of the tail are black. There are three pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 13/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34</p> <p>Habitat. Black-footed Ferrets are found on short/mid-grass prairies and semi-arid grasslands, in close association with prairie dogs.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Black-footed Ferrets specialize in preying on prairie dogs (Cynomys), which they hunt by pursuing them inside their burrow systems. Occasionally, they may also eat other small mammals, such as microtine rodents and ground squirrels. One scat study revealed a diet that comprised 87% White-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), 6% mice, and 3% lagomorphs.</p> <p>Activity pattern. Primarily nocturnal, although daytime activity is not uncommon. Black-footed Ferrets are active throughout the year and continue to hunt prairie dogs during the winter, even though they are in hibernation. Prairie dog burrows are used as den/rest sites and may be modified for their own use.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Black-footed Ferrets are solitary, except during the breeding season. They seldom move from one prairie dog colony to another. The average nightly movement during winter is 1406 m. The average prairie dog town size occupied by a Black-footed Ferret is 8 ha, but the average size occupied by females with young is 36 ha (range = 10-120 ha). The mean distance between two towns occupied by Black-footed Ferrets is 5- 4 km. Population density in Wyoming was estimated to be one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs in March and April. Gestation lasts 42-45 days and births occur in May and June. Litter size can range from one to six; the average is three. The young emerge from the burrow in early July and separate from the mother in September or early October. Young males disperse a considerable distance, but young females often remain in the vicinity of their mother’s territory. Sexual maturity is attained by one year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Listed as Extinct in the Wild in 1996, but the success of conservation measures has changed their status to Endangered in The IUCN Red List. The Black-footed Ferret may once have been common in southern Canada (Alberta, and Saskatchewan), west-central USA (Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Arizona, and Texas), and northern Mexico. Destruction of prairie dog colonies for the sake of agriculture led to a decline in Black-footed Ferret numbers and eventually they became so rare that many people considered them to be extinct. However, unconfirmed sigh things continued from several states, and in 1981 a small population of Black-footed Ferrets was discovered in Wyoming. Intensive field studies were initiated, and byJuly 1984, the population was estimated to contain 129 individuals. However, the number of ferrets then began to fall, apparently due to a decline in their prairie dog prey; also, canine distemper was somehow introduced into the wild population. By 1987, the remaining 18 individuals were brought into captivity to start a breeding program. By 1991, there were 180 individuals in captivity and 49 ferrets were released into south-eastern Wyoming; 91 more were released in 1992, and another 48 in 1993. Most of these animals are thought to have died, but some are known to have survived and reproduced; at least six litters were born in the wild in 1993. Additional reintroductions were carried out in Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only three of which are self sustaining. These self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; four populations of limited success are in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; eight populations recently introduced are in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and three other declining or extirpated populations are in Montana. The current status of this species is still extremely precarious.</p> <p>Bibliography. Biggins et al. (1986), Campbell et al. (1987), Hillman &amp; Clark (1980), IUCN (2008), Svendsen (2003), Vargas &amp; Anderson (1998), Wozencraft (2005), Young et al. (2001).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA71FF9DCFA53BBDFCD4F9BF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.text	038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela nivalis Linnaeus 1766	<div><p>50.</p> <p>Least Weasel</p> <p>Mustela nivalis</p> <p>French: Belette pygmée / German: Mauswiesel / Spanish: Comadreja comun</p> <p>Other common names: Weasel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>Nine subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>M. n. nivalis Linnaeus, 1766 — China, North and South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Taiwan, and Scandinavia.</p> <p>M. n. allegheniensis Rhoads, 1900 — NE USA (Allegheny Mts W to Wisconsin).</p> <p>M. n. boccamela Bechstein, 1800 — Corsica, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain.</p> <p>M. n. campestris Jackson, 1913 — C Great Plains, USA.</p> <p>M. n. eskimo Stone, 1900 — Alaska and NW Canada (Yukon).</p> <p>M. n. namiyer Kuroda, 1921 — Japan and the Kurile Is.</p> <p>M. n. numidica Pucheran, 1855 — N Africa.</p> <p>M. n. rnixosa Bangs, 1896 — Canada and N Great Plains of USA.</p> <p>M. n. vulgaris Erxleben, 1777 = W &amp; C Europe and most of C Eurasia.</p> <p>Introduced to New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azores Is, and apparently also Sao Tome I.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 11.4-26 cm,tail 7-9 cm; weight 25-250 g, males are on average larger than females. There is much geographic variation in size. The tail is only slightly longer than the length of the hindfoot, and is less than 35% of head and body length. The Least Weasel is the smallest species within the Carnivora. It has a long and slender body, with short limbs and tail. Except in certain southern parts ofits range, the Least Weasel changes color during the spring and autumn. In summer, the upperparts are brown and the underparts are white. In winter, the entire coat is white, but unlike other weasels that turn white during the winter, the Least Weasel does not posses a black-tipped tail. There are three to four pairs of mammae. The skull has a short rostrum, and a large and long cerebral cranium. Dental formula: I 3/3, C 1/1, P3/3,M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. The Least Weasel is found in a wide range of habitats that provide good cover and prey abundance, including agricultural fields, grasslands, forests, prairies, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, mountains (up to 4000 m), alpine meadows, steppes, semi-deserts, and coastal dunes. They are also found near human habitations.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly small rodents, but other small mammals (such as lagomorphs, moles, and squirrels), birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, insects (mostly beetles), fish, worms, and carrion are also occasionally eaten. The proportions of different small rodent species in the diet roughly reflects their relative abundances throughout the year. In Europe and Russia, Microtus agrestris, M. arvalis, M. oeconomus, M. brandti, Arvicola terrestris, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rutilus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Lemmus lemmus, and L. sibiricus are preyed upon. In North America, M. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogastere, C. rutilus, C. gapperi, Peromyscus leucopus, P. maniculatus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Sigmodon hispidus, Dicrostonyx rubricatus, D. hudsonicus, and L. sibiricus are eaten. In Great Britain, one study showed that the diet consists of 68% rodents (mainly Microtus agrestis), 25% lagomorphs, and 5% birds and birds’ eggs. The small size of Least Weasels enables them to pursue prey into their burrows, so much of their hunting is underground or under snow. Males readily shift to larger prey such as birds, lagomorphs, and Water Voles, while females continue to search for Field Voles. Thus, males generally take larger prey than females and spend less time hunting in tunnels. Least Weasels take five to ten meals per day. Excess food may be stored, especially in the winter; the cache site may be within the home burrow or near a kill. Killing behavior is innate. Least Weasels respond to movements of prey as a stimulus for attack. The killing bite is delivered at the nape of the neck and penetrates the base of the skull or throat area.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Active day and night. The high-energy requirements of Least Weasels mean that they have to be constantly active, so active and rest periods occur in rapid succession. However, the timing and extent of their daily activity is related to the activity patterns of their prey. Least Weasels may spend the whole winter under snow. Den/ rest sites are in prey burrows, in rock piles, or in other well-concealed sites. Vocalizations in captive animals consist of a repertoire of five different sounds, including a chirp, a hiss, a trill, a squeal, and a squeak.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Least Weasels constantly move in search of prey. They are mainly terrestrial, but are also agile tree climbers and fairly good swimmers. Movements may reach 1-5 km /h. Least Weasels are solitary outside of the breeding season. Home ranges are 0-6-26/ha for males and 0-2-7/ha for females. Male home ranges overlap with one or more females, but do not overlap with other males. Population densities range from 0-2-1 /ha.</p> <p>Breeding. Breeding may continue throughout the year, even during the winter, but is concentrated in spring and late summer. Delayed implantation does not occur and the gestation period is 34-37 days.Litter size may reach ten, but usually is four to five. Females can have more than one litter annually; second and third litters within a single year may occur during peaks of rodent abundance. Births occur in a burrow or rock crevice; the nest is lined with grass and other material. Females raise the young alone. Newborns are blind, naked, and weigh 1-2 g. The eyes open at 26-30 days, and the young are weaned after 42-56 days. They leave their mother at 9-12 weeks. Adult size is reached after 12-15 weeks. Females reach sexual maturity at three months and may produce a litter in their first summer.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Least Weasel is considered relatively common in Eurasia, but appears to be rare in North America. They are not known to prey on domestic animals and are beneficial to people through its destruction of mice and rats. However, Least Weasels have been introduced to some areas, such as New Zealand, with sometimes devastating effects on the local fauna. Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides and persecution. The Least Weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining in some parts of Europe owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment).</p> <p>Bibliography. Brandt &amp; Lambin (2007), Francis (2008), IUCN (2008), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska &amp; Szymura (1995), Jedrzejewski, Jedrzejewska, Zub &amp; Nowakowski (2000), King (1990), Sheffield &amp; King (1994), Svendsen (2003), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA72FF9DCAE83A7CF967F701	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B.text	038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela nudipes Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>51.</p> <p>Malay Weasel</p> <p>Mustela nudipes</p> <p>French: Putois a pieds nus / German: NacktfuRwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja descalza</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela nudipes Desmarest, 1822,</p> <p>Indonesia.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and S Thailand.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 30-36 cm, tail 24-26 cm; weight 1000 g. The Malay Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is reddish-brown, almost orange throughout, with the head much paler than the rest of the body, often appearing white. The tail is long and bushy; the basal half is the same color as the back, but the distal halfis typically all white. The soles of the feet are naked around the pads. There are two pairs of mammae.</p> <p>Habitat. Rainforests, with records from 400 to 1700 m. Often found in close proximity to water.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet includes small mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Apparently active both day and night. Rests in holes underground.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Said to be solitary and terrestrial.</p> <p>Breeding. Litter size reported to be up to four.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status. It is eaten in parts of Sarawak and there is some evidence of medicinal use.</p> <p>Bibliography. Banks (1949), Duckworth et al. (2006), Francis (2008), Franklin &amp; Wells (2005), IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Payne et al. (1985), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA72FF9DCFE634EDF7ABF21B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA.text	038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela putorius Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>52.</p> <p>European Polecat</p> <p>Mustela putorius</p> <p>French: Putois d'Europe / German: Waldiltis / Spanish: Turon europeo</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela putorius Linnaeus, 1758,</p> <p>Sweden.</p> <p>The European Polecat is possibly the ancestor of the domestic Ferret M. p. furo. Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision is needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Most of Europe W of Urals, and Morocco.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 29.5-46 cm (males), 20.5-38.5 cm (females), tail 10-519 cm (males), 7-14 cm (females); weight 500-1710 g (males), 400-915 g (females), adult males are larger than females. The European Polecat has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown to black, with paler, yellowish undersides. The areas between the eye and ear and around the mouth, are silvery white. There are up to five pairs of mammae. Dental formula: 3/3. CV /1.P5/3. M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. The European Polecat is found in forests, meadows, abandoned fields, and agricultural areas, often in close proximity to water. They sometimes occur near humans, but avoid dense urban areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet consists of amphibians, small mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. In Switzerland, the diet of European Polecats is almost exclusively carnivorous, but somefruits are also eaten, mainly by juveniles. Anurans (frogs and toads; mainly Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo) are the staple food. Other foods of importance are small mammals (mainly Muridae, but also Microtidae and Soricidae), carrion, and eggs. The anuran proportion of the diet is higher in summer than in winter and higher in the mountains than in the lowlands. In mountainous regions, anurans are also the most important food in winter. Juveniles eat more fruits and invertebrates and fewer mammals than adults. Sex-related differences in the importance of the main food categories have not been detected. In Denmark, the stomach contents of 47 European Polecats revealed that they preyed mostly on amphibians (87%) and mammals (34%), and only occasionally on birds (9%) and fish (6%). In Poland, the analysis of 222 scats revealed that anurans (mainly R. temporaria) comprised 70 to 98% of the biomass consumed and were found in 60 to 95% of scats. Forest rodents (Apodemus flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus) constituted from 1-29% of the biomass eaten. The consumption of rodents grew with decreasing winter temperature and increasing numbers of rodents. Snow-tracking of individual European Polecats has shown that in wet forests, they move in close proximity to watercourses to search for anurans, whereas in the drier forests, they hunt rodents, mainly by digging. European Polecats constantly move as they search for prey, exploring burrows, hollow logs,trees, tree cavities, rock crevices, and farm buildings.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, but can be crepuscular and active during the day. In Luxembourg, radio-collared European Polecats were 62% active during the night. Males were more active than females, and activity increased from winter to summer. In central Italy, ten males and six females were monitored using radio-telemetry. Males exhibited a regular and constant nocturnal pattern in every season, preferring the time between 20:00-06:00 h; activity was lower at dawn and dusk, and scarce during daylight hours. Females were significantly diurnal and crepuscular, but individuals revealed a flexibility in their activity pattern, including arrhythmic patterns without apparent temporal organization. Den/rest sites include crevices, hollow logs, burrows made by other animals, and sometimes buildings. In Luxembourg, European Polecats were located in 53 different resting sites, during the day. Aboveground shelters were used more often than underground shelters. Piles of branches, barns and stables, garden sheds and rat dens, were the most used sites, without specific preference for any one type of shelter. However, buildings seem to be of prime importance during severe weather conditions.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. European Polecats are solitary and terrestrial, but also capable of climbing. Daily movements average 1- 1 km. In some forest areas, home ranges are 100-150 ha. In Poland, European Polecats occupied stretches of 0-65 to 3-05 km along a stream. The home ranges of females were exclusive, but they could be completely overlapped by male home ranges. In Luxembourg, the home range size of European Polecats ranged from 42 to 428 ha, with an average of 181 ha. The mean home range size of males (246 ha) was significantly larger than that of females (84 ha). European Polecats concentrated 50% of their space use in only 15% of their home range, possibly indicating that suitable habitat was patchy. Average distance traveled per night by males was 3-6 times greater than that of females. Also, seasonal variation in movements was observed in males, but not in females. Population density is one per km”.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occurs from March to June. The gestation period is about 42 days. Litter size is typically three to seven, but may be up to twelve. Neonates are blind and weigh 9-10 g. They open their eyes and are weaned after about one month, and become independent at around three months. Sexual maturity may be reached during the first year.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. In Western Europe, the European Polecat was widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest. However, these threats have become less seriousas this species is now protected in a number of range states, and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality from car collisions and secondary rodenticide poisoning are threats. In Russia and Morocco, this species is commonly hunted. Hybridization with the Ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the introduced American Mink may also be a problem.</p> <p>Bibliography. Baghli &amp; Verhagen (2004, 2005), Baghli, Engel &amp; Verhagen (2002), Baghli, Walzberg &amp; Verhagen (2005), Blandford (1987), Brzezinski et al. (1992), Fournier et al. (2007), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Jedrzejewski et al. (1993), Lanszki &amp; Heltai (2007), Lodé (1997, 2003), Marcelli et al. (2003), Rondinini et al. (2006), Stroganov (1969), Virgos (2003), Weber (1989), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA73FF9CCAAD3D1BF76BFDBA	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631.text	038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela sibirica Pallas 1773	<div><p>53.</p> <p>Siberian Weasel</p> <p>Mustela sibirica</p> <p>French: Putois de Sibérie / German: Sibirisches Feuerwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja siberiana</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773,</p> <p>Russia.</p> <p>Up to twenty-two subspecies have been proposed, but a taxonomic revision 1s needed.</p> <p>Distribution. Bhutan, China, India, Japan (Hokkaido), North and South Korea, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, N Myanmar, Russia, Taiwan, and N Thailand. Introduced to several Japanese islands (Honshu, Kyushu &amp; Shikoku Is).</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-39 cm (males), 25-30.5 cm (females), tail 15.5-21 cm (males), 13.3-16.4 cm (females); weight 650-820 g (males), 360-430 g (females), adult males are almost twice the size of females. The Siberian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown in summer and becomes paler, almost yellowish-brown in winter. The upper lips and chin are white. There is usually a dark mask around and in front of the eyes. The tail is about 50% of the head and body length, and may have a dark tip. There are four pairs of mammae. The skull is long and narrow. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.</p> <p>Habitat. Siberian Weasels are found in forests, forest steppe, and mountains, from 1500 to 5000 m. They are often found in river valleys, near swamps, and in areas with dense ground vegetation, around villages, and in cultivated areas.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet is mainly small mammals (rodents, pikas), but may also include amphibians, birds, eggs,fish, invertebrates, berries, and nuts. Siberian Weasels search for prey by exploring hollow trees, logs,cavities, brush piles, and other enclosed spaces.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal and crepuscular. Den/rest sites are under roots, in logs or tree hollows, modified rodent burrows, rock crevices, or buildings.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Siberian Weasels are solitary and terrestrial, but can climb and swim well. Nightly movements may reach 8 km. There are reports of Siberian Weasels relocating to new areas if food becomes scarce locally.</p> <p>Breeding. Mating occursin late winter and early spring. The gestation period is 33-37 days. The young are born in April to June, inside hollow trees, cavities among rocks or stumps,inside buildings, or in a modified rodent burrow; the nest is lined with fur and feathers from prey killed by the mother. The litter size is 2-12, usually five or six. The young open their eyesafter one month, and lactation lasts two months. They leave their mother by the end of August.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The Siberian Weasel is important in the fur trade. It occasionally attacks domestic fowl, but is generally considered beneficial because it preys on rodents. Little is known about Siberian Weasels and field studies are needed to learn more about their natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Francis (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Rhim &amp; Lee (2007), Sasaki &amp; Ono (1994), Stroganov (1969), Wozencraft (2005, 2008), Wu (1999).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA73FF9CCFA73E7BF7ECF631	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36.text	038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela strigidorsa Linnaeus 1758	<div><p>54.</p> <p>Back-striped Weasel</p> <p>Mustela strigidorsa</p> <p>French: Putois a dos rayé / German: Riickenstreifenwiesel / Spanish: Comadreja estriada</p> <p>Other common names: Stripe-backed Weasel</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela strigodorsa Gray, 1853,</p> <p>India.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. S China (Guangxi, Guizhou &amp; Yunnan), NE India, N &amp; C Laos, N &amp; C Myanmar, N Thailand, and N &amp; C Vietnam.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-325 cm, tail 10.3-20.5 cm; weight 700-2000 g. The Back-striped Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is dark brown with yellowish-white upperlips, cheeks, chin, and throat. A narrow, whitish stripe runs along the back from the head to the base of the tail. Another narrow pale stripe runs along the abdomen. The bushy tail is less than half the head and body length. There are two pairs of mammae. The tympanic bullae are flattened. Dental formula: 13/3, C1/1,P3/3,M 1/2 = 34.</p> <p>Habitat. Found mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has also been recorded from plains forest, dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland, and farmland. Altitudinal range 90-2500 m.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The dietis said to include small rodents.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Has been seen on the ground and in trees.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The [UCN Red List. Populations in the wild are suspected to be declining. Back-striped Weasels are sold for traditional medicine in Laos. About 3000 to 4000 pelts were harvested annually in China in the 1970s. Outside China, this species is sold occasionally in Laos and Vietnam. Even though the Back-striped Weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could be causing major declines because many hunting methods (notably snares) are non-selective. This is a poorly known species and field studies are needed to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Davies (2006), Evans et al. (1994), Francis (2008), Hansel &amp; Tizard (2006), IUCN (2008), Lekagul &amp; McNeely (1991), Pocock (1941a), Ratajszczak &amp; Cox (1991), Schreiber et al. (1989), Wozencraft (2005, 2008).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA73FF9BCFAE35FDFF66FC36	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836.text	038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Mustela subpalmata Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1833	<div><p>55.</p> <p>Egyptian Weasel</p> <p>Mustela subpalmata</p> <p>French: Belette d'Egypte / German: Agyptisches Wiesel / Spanish: Comadreja egipcia</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela subpalmata Hemprich &amp; Ehrenberg, 1833,</p> <p>Egypt.</p> <p>The Egyptian Weasel has often been considered conspecific with the Least Weasel, but is now recognized as a separate species. Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Egypt.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 27-30 cm, tail 10.7-12.9 cm; weight 45-130 g, but females are smaller than males. The morphology is very similar to that of the Least Weasel.</p> <p>Habitat. Fields and along irrigation canals. Also found in towns and villages.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Diet is said to include small mammals and insects.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Nothing known.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. Virtually nothing is known about this species;it is a high priority for field studies to learn more about its natural history, ecology, and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Setzer (1958), Van Zyll de Jong (1992), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA74FF9BCAFB3FFCFC20F836	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.text	038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Neovison vison (Schreber 1777)	<div><p>56.</p> <p>American Mink</p> <p>Neovison vison</p> <p>French: Vison d’Amérique / German: Amerikanischer Nerz / Spanish: Visén americano</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela vison Schreber, 1776,</p> <p>Eastern Canada.</p> <p>Fifteen subspecies are recognized.</p> <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p> <p>N. v. vison Schreber, 1776 — E Canada and NE USA (Allegheny Mts).</p> <p>N. v. aestuarina Grinnell, 1916 — SW USA (California &amp; W Nevada).</p> <p>N. v. aniakensis Burns, 1964 — W Alaska.</p> <p>N. v. energumenos Bangs, 1896 — W Canada and NW USA.</p> <p>N. v. evagor Hall, 1932 — SW Canada (Vancouver I).</p> <p>N. v. evergladensis Hamilton, 1948 — SE USA (SW Florida).</p> <p>N. v. ingens Osgood, 1900 — most of Alaska and NW Canada (N Mackenzie &amp; Yukon).</p> <p>N. v. lacustris Preble, 1902 — C Canada (Keewatin Region, Manitoba &amp; Ontario).</p> <p>N. v. letifera Hollister, 1913 — Great Plains of USA.</p> <p>N. v. low Anderson, 1945 — E Canada (Labrador &amp; Quebec).</p> <p>N. v. lutensis Bangs, 1898 — USA (S Carolina to Florida).</p> <p>N. v. melampeplus Elliot, 1903 — Alaska (Kenai Peninsula).</p> <p>N. v. mink Peale &amp; Palisot de Beauvois, 1796 — SE USA.</p> <p>N. v. nesolestes Heller, 1909 — SW Alaska.</p> <p>N. v. vulgivaga Bangs, 1895 — USA (Arkansas &amp; Louisiana).</p> <p>Introduced to Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan (Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 33-43 cm (males), 30-40 cm (females), tail 16.7-20 cm (males), 15.2-18.5 cm (females); weight 850-1805 g (males), 450-840 g (females), adult males are generally 10% longer and 100% heavier than females. The American Mink has a long body and short limbs. The pelage is soft and luxurious; it is brown throughout, but white markings on the chest, throat and chin are common. The feet are fully furred and the claws are short and sharp. There are three pairs of mammae. The skull is long and flat, with a small sagittal crest. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C1/1, P 3/3,M1/2=34.</p> <p>Habitat. American Mink are found along the edges of small creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and in wetlands, swamps, marshes, and along coastal beaches. They prefer densely vegetated areas and are sometimes found far from water. Females have been found to prefer small streams, whereas males prefer large streams.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. The diet includes small mammals,fish, birds, eggs, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, molluscs, insects, and earthworms. In much of North America, the American Mink is a major predator of Muskrats; fluctuations in Muskrat populations have a direct effect on American Mink abundance. In Eurasia, where the American Mink has been introduced, the staple food items on rivers and streamsare fish (average, 27%), mammals (30%), and amphibians (17%), whereas on lakes and ponds,it is predominantly birds (33%) and fish (28%). On the upper reaches of the Lovatriver, north-east Belarus, three out of ten American Mink were found to be small mammal specialists; 86-92% of their scats contained remains of small rodents (mostly the Water Vole and microtines), and small mammals constituted 83-88% of the food biomass consumed; the other seven were generalist predators. In western Poland, the diet of American Mink consists mainly of mammals, birds, and fish. In autumn-winter, mammals constitute up to 56%, fish up to 62%, and birds 4-16%, of the biomass consumed. In spring and summer, however, birds form 45-60% of the biomass eaten; the common coot (Fulica atra) is the most frequently consumed prey. Scat analysis in eastern Poland revealed that American Mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring-summer and 10% in autumnwinter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Of the available small mammal species, American Mink strongly selected the Root Vole (Microtus oeconomus). The cold season diet depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, American Mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72-90% of food biomass). As the size of a river increases and riverside habitat becomes more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forest), American Mink shift to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in the diet). The stomach contents of 211 individuals in Thy, Denmark, revealed that the diet was mostly mammals (55% occurrence), followed by amphibians (36%), birds (33%), and fish (30%). In Bornholm, Denmark, American Mink prey mostly on birds (50%), followed by mammals (42%), fish (25%) and amphibians (4%). In Italy, the diet is mainly fish, followed by small mammals and birds. American Mink spend most of their time hunting near water, but can also hunt underwater. In a coastal environment of Scotland, radio-tracked American Mink were found to forage selectively at low or mid-tide and within the core areas of their home range; they showed no preference for areas rich in prey when foraging at high tide and between core areas. They also avoided areas with freshwater streams and preferred foraging in the mid-tide zone. Prey on land are detected by sight or sound. Surplus food is sometimes cached.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Mainly nocturnal, but with frequent periods of daytime activity, especially in areas away from humans. Den/rest sites are in burrows, hollow logs, hollow trees, rock crevices, old buildings, or abandoned dwellings of Muskrats, American Beavers, or Woodchucks (Marmota sp.). Burrows may be about 3 m long and 1 m beneath the surface, and have one or more entrancesjust above the water level. On the northern Iberian Peninsula, radio-collared American Mink selected resting places within dense scrub,close to deep water. Both sexes also used underground dens, but during cold days females rested in buildings much more often than males. Active females used areas of dense scrub, and males used large scrub patches.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. American Mink are good swimmers. They can dive to depths of 5-6 m and swim underwater for about 30 m. They are also agile climbers and occasionally forage in trees. Movements are either short foraging excursions or long travel movements between areas. Daily movements may reach up to 25 km, but usually are less than 5 km. American Mink are solitary outside of the breeding season. Females have home ranges of about 8-20 ha; the ranges of males are larger, sometimes up to 800 ha. Home ranges include 1-8-7- 5 km of shoreline for males and 1-4- 2 km for females. In the prairies, the average home range of males was 7- 7 km *. The home ranges of males overlap with those of females, but there is little overlap with other males. Population densities of 1-8 per km? have been recorded.</p> <p>Breeding. Females are polyestrous but only have one litter per year. Mating occurs from February to April. Implantation of the fertilized eggs into the uterus undergoes a short and variable delay, and gestation may last from 39 to 78 days (average 51 days). Actual embryonic development takes 30-32 days. Births occur in April to June. Litter size ranges from two to ten, with an average offive. The young are born blind; their eyes open after five weeks and weaning occursat five to six weeks. They leave the nest and begin to hunt at seven to eight weeks, and separate from the mother in the autumn. Females reach adult weight at four months and sexual maturity at twelve months; males reach adult weight at 9-11 months and sexual maturity at 18 months.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern in The IUCN Red List. The American Mink is considered common throughoutits range. It is harvested in the wild forits fur, particularly in North America; however, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms and American Mink are intensively raised in captivity. Most of the conservation issues with this species relate to its introduction to countries outside its natural distribution and the impacts on native fauna. Major threats to American Mink are linked with water pollution.</p> <p>Bibliography. Aulerich &amp; Ringer (1979), Aulerich et al. (1974), Bartoszewicz &amp; Zalewski (2003), Birks &amp; Linn (1982), Bonesi et al. (2000), Dunstone (1979, 1983, 1993), Enders (1952), Errington (1954), Hammershoj et al. (2004), Lariviere (1999a, 2003b), Sidorovich et al. (2001), Wozencraft (2005), Zabala et al. (2007a, 2007b), Zuberogoitia et al. (2006).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA74FF9ACAF234C8FE56FE2A	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61.text	038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lyncodon patagonicus Gervais 1845	<div><p>57.</p> <p>Patagonian Weasel</p> <p>Lyncodon patagonicus</p> <p>French: Belette de Patagonie / German: Patagonisches Wiesel / Spanish: Huron patagonico</p> <p>Taxonomy. Mustela patagonica de Blainville, 1842,</p> <p>Argentina.</p> <p>Monotypic.</p> <p>Distribution. Argentina and C &amp; S Chile.</p> <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 30-35 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 200-250 g. The Patagonian Weasel has a long, slender body and short limbs. The pelage is grayish-white throughout, with a wide band of white fur on the top of head. The nape, cheeks, chin, throat and limbs are dark brown. Dental formula; 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1=28.</p> <p>Habitat. Herbaceous and shrub steppes, and xerophytic woodlands.</p> <p>Food and Feeding. Reported to enter burrows and prey on fossorial rodents and birds. May be associated with tuco-tuco (Ctenomys spp.) communities.</p> <p>Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal and crepuscular.</p> <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known.</p> <p>Breeding. Nothing known.</p> <p>Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient in The IUCN RedList. Verylittle is known about the Patagonian Weasel as it is rarelyseen in the wild or collected. No information has been published onits current population status or major threats. Field studies are needed to learn more about its ecology and conservation status.</p> <p>Bibliography. Ewer (1973), IUCN (2008), Miller et al. (1983), Pocock (1926), Wozencraft (2005).</p></div> 	http://treatment.plazi.org/id/038F87D4CA75FF9ACADA3EB6F656FC61	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Don E. Wilson;Russell A. Mittermeier	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2009): Mustelidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 564-656, ISBN: 978-84-96553-49-1, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5714044
